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25 Alkire, M. T.et al.‘Thalamic microinjection of nicotine reverses sevoflurane-in-duced loss of righting reflex in the rat’.Anesthesiology ,107,264-72(2007).
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26 Posner, J. B.&Plum, F.Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma .(Oxford University Press,2007);另请参阅Miller, J.W.&Ferrendelli, J.A.‘The central medial nucleus:thalamic site of seizure regulation’.Brain Research ,508,297-300(1990);以及Miller, J.W.&Ferrendelli, J.A.‘Characterization of GABAergic seizure regulation in the midline thalamus’.Neuropharmacology ,29,649-55(1990).
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27 Alkire, M. T.,Haier, R.J.&Fallon, J.H.‘Toward a unified theory of narcosis:brain imaging evidence for a thalamocortical switch as the neurophysiologic basis of anesthetic-induced unconsciousness’.Consciousness and Cognition ,9,370-86(2000).
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28 Tononi, G.‘An information integration theory of consciousness’.BMC Neuro-science ,5,42-64(2004);另请参阅Massimini, M.et al.‘Triggering sleep slow waves by transcranial magnetic stimulation’.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ,104,8496-501(2007).
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29 伽马振荡看起来尤其依赖于兴奋性神经元和剩余抑制性脑细胞之间的反复连接,它们能迅速放电,主要来自兴奋性神经元的主要部分(细胞体)附近的突触。这种设置的全部要义是,在伽马活动期间,每一个兴奋性细胞只需要一小部分周期的动作电位,但每一个周期的总贡献为抑制性神经元提供足够的兴奋性驱动,使它们在每一个周期中产生动力。这是一种神经元的马克思主义,在这种学说中,每个个体断断续续地工作,却能确保集体性的持续产出。Mann, E.O.et al.‘Perisomatic feedback inhibition un-derlies cholinergically induced fast network oscillations in the rat hippocampus in vitro’.Neuron,45,105-17(2005).Fisahn, A.et al.‘Cholinergic induction of network oscillations at 40Hz in the hippocampus in vitro’.Nature ,394,186-9(1998).
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30 Singer, W.‘Neuronal synchrony:a versatile code for the definition of relations?’Neuron ,24,49-65,111-25(1999);另请参阅Singer, W.&Gray, C.M.‘Visual feature integration and the temporal correlation hypothesis’.Annual Review of Neuroscience ,18,555-86(1995);以及 Tononi, G.,Sporns, O.&Edelman, G.M.‘Re-entry and the problem of integrating multiple cortical areas:simulation of dynamic integration in the visual system’.Cerebral Cortex ,2,310-35(1992).
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31 Wu, J. Y.et al.‘Spatiotemporal properties of an evoked population activity in rat sensory cortical slices’.Journal of Neurophysiology ,86,2461-74(2001).
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32 Koubeissi et al.,2014.
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33 Tononi, G.&Koch, C.‘The neural correlates of consciousness:an update’.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences ,1124,239-61(2008).
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34 Bachmann, T. Microgenetic Approach to the Conscious Mind.(John Benjamins,2000).
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35 Sergent, C.,Baillet, S.&Dehaene, S.‘Timing of the brain events underlying access to consciousness during the attentional blink’.Nature Neuroscience ,8,1391-400(2005).
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36 Libet, B. Mind Time:Tee Temporal Factor in Consciousness .(Harvard University Press,2004).
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37 Edelman, G. M.The Remembered Present:A Biological Theory of Conscious-ness.(Basic Books,1989).
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38 Rossi, A. F.,Desimone, R.&Ungerleider, L.G.‘Contextual modulation in primary visual cortex of macaques’.Journal of Neuroscience ,21,1698-709(2001).
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39 Pascual-Leone, A.&Walsh, V.‘Fast back projections from the motion to the primary visual area necessary for visual awareness’.Science ,292,510-12(2001).
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40 Todman, D.,Wilder Penfield(1891-1976)’.Journal of Neurology ,255,1104-5(2008).
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41 Quiroga, R. et al.‘Invariant visual representation by single neurons in the human brain’.Nature ,435,1102-7(2005).
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42 Kandel, E. R.‘An introduction to the work of David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel’.Journal of Physiology ,587,2733-41(2009).
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43 Gross, C. G.‘Genealogy of the“grandmother cell”’.Neuroscientist ,8,512-18(2002);另请参阅Jagadeesh, B.‘Recognizing grandmother’.Nature Neuroscience ,12,1083-5(2009).
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44 Quiroga, R. Q.,Fried, I.&Koch, C.‘Brain cells for grandmother.’Scientific American ,308,30-5(2013).
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45 Biederman, I.‘Recognition-by-components:a theory of human image understanding’.Psychological Review ,94,115-47(1987);另请参阅Marr, D.&Nishihara, H.K.‘Representation and recognition of the spatial organization of three-dimensional shapes’.Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B:Biological Sciences ,200,269-94(1978);以及Booth, M.C.A.&Rolls, E.T.‘View-invariant representations of familiar objects by neurons in the inferior temporal visual cor-tex’.Cerebral Cortex ,8,510-23(1998);以及Bulthoff, H.H.,Edelman, S.Y.&Tarr, M.J.‘How are three-dimensional objects represented in the brain?’Cerebral Cortex ,5,247-60(1995);以及Vetter, T.,Hurlbert, A.&Poggio, T.‘View-based models of 3D object recognition:invariance to imaging transformations’.Cerebral Cortex,5,261-9(1995);以及Logothetis, N.K.&Pauls, J.‘Psychophysical and physiological evidence for viewer-centered object representations in the primate’.Cerebral Cortex ,5,270-88(1995).
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46 Connor, C. E.‘Neuroscience:friends and grandmothers’.Nature ,435,1036-7(2005).
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47 他们的想法是,量子理论的原理(一门研究非常小的尺度的物理学)可以为意识的产生提供一种替代的过程,把包括各种假设的可能性,通过实证观察还原为单一的确定性概念(波函数塌缩)。在一个版本的量子理论中(哥本哈根解释,试图调和量子力学的理论公式与实验数据),观察行为本身导致系统被观察,最终导致形成早期可能性状态(主观还原)的其中一种结果,因为我们必须有观察者。但在大脑中,由于没有外部观察者,量子事件必须在没有任何人观察的情况下自发地“崩溃”,也就是说,是更客观地进行。Cramer, J.‘The transactional interpretation of quantum mechanics’.Review of Modern Physics ,58,647-87(1986).
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48 Hameroff, S.&Penrose, R.‘Consciousness in the universe:a review of the“Orch OR”theory’.Physics of Life Reviews ,11,39-78(2014).
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49 不可避免的是,这个高度原创的设想引发了许多不确定性和问题。最直接的是,大脑对于量子事件的发生来说太热了,因为它们的相干性需要310°开的环境温度,而这将被自然热的大脑热能所干扰。另一方面,物理学家赫伯特·弗利希(Herbert Fröhlich)认为,大脑可能是一个很特殊的例外,与外部世界的发生的事很不同,细胞内化学反应所提供的能量能够产生和维持脑内的相干性。他估计微管蛋白分子可以在10-12到10-9秒之间以相干的方式被激发,也就是1纳秒。而如果正如里贝特的研究所得出的(2004年),意识的一个瞬间是500毫秒,那么将需要约109 微管蛋白分子,即在100到100000个神经元内才能找到这么多微管蛋白分子。但是这个数字太少了,无法达到有意义的量子相干性。即使是简单而短暂的闪光,也会激活一只猫大脑中大约107 个神经元。然而,最近,通过引用一些观察数据,哈梅洛夫和潘洛斯对此的回应似乎打破了量子事件与脑热的不相容性。这些观察表明,某些现象(量子自旋转移)在越来越高的温度下会增强,同时指出植物在光合作用适宜的环境温度中使用量子事件。温暖的量子效应也出现在鸟类大脑导航、离子通道(通过该通道,细胞膜中的孔允许离子,如钠和钾,从外部进入内部,反之亦然)、气味和蛋白质折叠(经由这一过程中,蛋白质链获得了三维结构)中。建立在量子理论之上的修改版意识描述发表于2013年,如今其理论基础是微管的“拍频”,据说对应如40Hz的脑波振荡频率。正如我们所看到的,这种说法作为一种意识和神经系统之间联系的证明,享有持久的声望。但我们也看到,这种集体的同步性远未被公认为一条金科玉律。事实上,很可能的情况是,稳态振荡是大脑的默认模式,背景“噪音”是意识体验中非常重要的“信号”,是叠加上去的。更重要的是,对于这个理论,在一个特定的生化反应中发现了细胞的能量供应(鸟苷三磷酸水解为鸟苷二磷酸)。至少一部分由这种故障提供的能量能够激发振动,从而归因于微管动力学,是通过细胞能量供应站(线粒体)的电磁场驱动。Bernroider, G.&Roy, S.‘Quantum entanglement of K+ions, multiple channel states and the role of noise in the brain’.SPIE Third International Symposium on Fluctuations and Noise(eds.Stocks, N.G.,Abbott, D.&Morse, R.P.),205-14(International Society for Optics and Photonics,2005).Engel, G.S.et al.2005).Engel, G.S.et al.‘Evidence for wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems’.Nature ,446,782-6(2007).Fröhlich, H.‘The extraordinary dielectric properties of biological materials and the action of enzymes’.Proceedings of the Natural Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ,72,4211-15(1975).Grinvald, A.et al.‘Cortical point-spread function and long-range lateral interactions revealed by real-time optical imaging of macaque monkey primary visual cortex’.Journal of Neuroscience ,14,2545-68(1994).Gauger, E.M.et al.‘Sustained quantum coherence and entanglement in the avian compass’.Physical Review Letters ,106,040503(2011).Hildner, R.et al.‘Quantum coherent energy transfer over varying pathways in single light-harvesting complexes’.Science ,340,1448-51(2013).Libet, B.,Wright, E.W.&Gleason, C.A.‘Preparation-or intention-to-act in relation to pre-event potentials recorded at the vertex’.Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology ,56,367-72(1983).Ouyang, M.&Awschalom, D.D.‘Coherent spin transfer between molecularly bridged quantum dots’.Science ,301,1074-8(2003).Pokorný,J.‘Excitation of vibrations in microtubules in living cells’.Bio-electrochemistry ,63,321-6(2004).Turin, L.‘A spectroscopic mechanism for primary olfactory reception’.Chemical Senses ,21,773-91(1996).
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