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perience induces structural and biochemical changes in the adult primate brain’.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ，102，17478-82（2005）.
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24 Kolb, B. Brain，Plasticity and Behaviour ，ch 1.Laurence Erlbaum Assoc（1995）.
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25 Greenfield, S. A.Mind Change：How Digital Technologies are Leaving Teeir Mark on Our Brains .（Random House，2014）.
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26 另外，在妊娠第28周和70周（即婴儿出生后第30周）之间，突触密度增加，并在8个月大时达到峰值，为6亿个，在10岁时趋于稳定，达到3亿个。Huttenlocher, P.et al.‘Synaptogenesis in human visual cortex-evidence for synapse elimination during normal development’.Neuroscience Letters ，33，247-52（1982）.
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27 Gogtay, N. et al.‘Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood’.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ，101，8174-9（2004）.
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28 同时，在“交汇关联”区域的细胞（那些皮层区域主要不是参与感觉或运动加工），例如前额叶皮层，会比诸如感觉皮层经历更长期的衰退。在感觉皮层，成长和衰退阶段的敏锐性被认为是感觉模式“关键时期”的基础，该术语表明，时间框架对于建立正确的通路是至关重要的。有趣的是，“白质”（也就是连接纤维）的体积在研究的整个过程中不断增加，这是由于髓鞘化（myelination）的增加——这种绝缘能改善神经传导，并解释多发性硬化症（一种破坏性的疾病）恶化时所造成的损害。
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29 Maguire, E. A.et al.‘Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers’.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ，97，4398-403（2000）.
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30 Gaser, C.&Schlaug, G.‘Brain structures differ between musicians and non-musicians’.Journal of Neuroscience ，23，9240-5（2003）.
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31 Bengtsson, S. L.et al.‘Extensive piano practising has regionally specifc effects on white matter development’.Nature Neuroscience ，8，1148-50（2005）.
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32 Jäncke, L.et al.‘The architecture of the golfer’s brain’.PLoS One ，4，e4785（2009）.
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33 Park, I. S.et al.‘Experience-dependent plasticity of cerebellar vermis in basket-ball players’.Cerebellum ，8，334-9（2009）.
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34 Mechelli, A. et al.‘Neurolinguistics：structural plasticity in the bilingual brain’.Nature ，431，757（2004）；另请参阅Stein, M.et al.‘Structural plasticity in the language system related to increased second-language profciency’.Cortex ，48，458-65（2012）.
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35 Draganski, B. et al.‘Neuroplasticity：changes in grey matter induced by training’.Nature，427，311-12（2004）；另请参阅Driemeyer, J.et al.‘Changes in gray matter induced by learning-revisited’.PLoS One ，3，e2669（2008）.
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36 Pascual-Leone, A. et al.‘Modulation of muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills’.Journal of Neurophysiology ，74，1037-45（1995）.
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37 Bailey, C. H.&Kandel, E.R.‘Synaptic remodeling, synaptic growth and the storage of long-term memory in Aplysia’.Progress in Brain Research ，169，179-98（2008）.
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38 Ridley, M.Nature via Nurture：Genes, Experience and What Makes Us Human .（Harper Perennial，2004）.
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39 Greenfield，2014；另请参阅 Greenfield, S.A.You and Me：Tee Neuroscience of Identity .（Notting Hill Editions，2011）.
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40 Pittenger, C.&Kandel, E. R.‘In search of general mechanisms for long-lasting plasticity：Aplysia and the hippocampus’.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B：Biological Sciences ，358，757-63（2003）；对于长时程增强效应（LTP）和长时程抑制（LTD）的基本解释见S.A.Greenfield，Tee Human Brain：A Guided Tour （Orion，1997）；更加全面且更技术化的描述见D.Purves，Neuroscience （Sinauer Press，2011，5th edn）.
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41 Deidda, G.，Bozarth, I. F.&Cancedda, L.‘Modulation of GABAergic transmission in development and neurodevelopmental disorders：investigating physiology and pathology to gain therapeutic perspectives’.Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience ，8，119（2014）.
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42 Storer, K. P.&Reeke, G.N.‘γ-Aminobutyric acid receptor type A receptor potentiation reduces firing of neuronal assemblies in a computational cortical model’.Anesthesiology ，117，780-90（2012）.
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43 Olds, J.&Milner, P.‘Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain’.Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology ，47，419-27（1954）.
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44 多巴胺对前额叶皮层有抑制作用。请参阅Ferron, A.et al.‘Inhibitory infuence of the mesocortical dopaminergic system on spontaneous activity or excitatory response induced from the thalamic mediodorsal nucleus in the rat medial prefrontal cortex’.Brain Research ，302，257-65（1984）.Gao, W.-J.，Wang, Y.&Goldman-Rakic, P.S.‘Dopamine modulation of perisomatic and peridendritic inhibition in prefrontal cortex’.Journal of Neuroscience ，23，1622-30（2003）.Cole, M.W.&Schneider, W.‘The cognitive control network：integrated cortical regions with dissociable functions’.Neuroimage ，37，343-60（2007）.Cole, M.W.，Pathak, S.&Schneider, W.‘Identifying the brain’s most globally connected regions’.NeuroImage ，49，3132-48（2010）.Cools, R.&d’Esposito, M.‘Inverted-U-shaped dopamine actions on human working memory and cognitive control’.Biological Psychiatry ，69，e113-25（2011）.多亏了这一抑制作用，多巴胺能够在三个不同水平上限制神经元集合的大小。第一，在单个神经元水平上，通过一种直接的调节作用，在特定的大脑区域即前额叶皮层上，对神经元产生有效的抑制。第二，通过全脑间接解剖系统：前额叶皮层所连接的脑区比其他任何区域都要多。因此，如果多巴胺抑制这一关键的脑区，尤其以人类大脑为例，那么大脑的整体组织功能将变得碎片化，因此大脑会不太可能形成任何超越正常解剖划分的神经元集合。第三，也是最后一点，在间接的行为水平上，多巴胺可能会使神经元集合的大小减小。众所周知，释放脑内多巴胺的苯丙胺类药物，对大脑整体具有刺激和兴奋的作用，导致过度亢奋。在这种状态下，当多巴胺水平很高时，有一种可能性会增加，过于活跃兴奋的人有更多机会即刻直接感知到周围的环境，而不会对某物或某人有长期沉思的“认知”过程。在前一个石头还没来得及激起全部的水波纹时，就寻求一种新的刺激，把一块新石头扔进水潭。正如我们所见，这将是一个高速竞争的世界，由于周转率高，因而神经元集合的大小会减小。
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45 与多巴胺类似效果的讨论请参阅Susanta Bandyopadhyay and John J.Hablitz（2007），‘Dopaminergic Modulation of Local Network Activity in Rat Prefrontal Cortex’，Journal of Neurophysiology ：4120-28.
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46 Brown, R. T.&Wagner, A.R.‘Resistance to punishment and extinction following training with shock or nonreinforcement’.Journal of Experimental Psychology ，68，503-7（1964）；另请参阅Gray, J.A.‘Fear, panic and anxiety：what’s in a name.Psychological Inquiry ，2，72-96（1991）.
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47 Greenfield, S. A.Tee Private Life of the Brain：Emotions, Consciousness and the Secret of the Self .（Wiley，2000）.
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