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13 Steinberg, L.‘A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking’.Developmental Review ,28,78-106(2008).
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14 Barch, D. M.‘The cognitive neuroscience of schizophrenia’.Annual Review of Clinical Psychology ,1,321-53(2005);另请参阅 Thoma, P.et al.‘Proverb comprehension impairments in schizophrenia are related to executive dysfunction’.Psychiatry Research ,170,132-9(2009).
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15 Cortiñas, M.et al.‘Reduced novelty-P3 associated with increased behavioral distractibility in schizophrenia’.Biological Psychology ,78,253-60(2008).
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16 Oltmanns, T. F.‘Selective attention in schizophrenic and manic psychoses:the effect of distraction on information processing’.Journal of Abnormal Psychology ,87,212-25(1978);另请参阅Parsons, B.D.et al.‘Lengthened temporal integration in schizophrenia’.Neuropsychologia ,51,372-6(2013).
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17 Strange, P. G.Brain Biochemistry and Brain Disorders .(Oxford University Press,1992);Sturman&Moghaddam,2011.
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18 支持这一长久以来的想法的证据非常明确:神经兴奋性药物,如苯丙胺,能增强大脑中多巴胺的释放,模拟出精神分裂症患者的精神病性症状。相反,抗精神病性药物会阻断多巴胺的活动,起到安神的作用,长期以来一直作为治疗精神分裂症的不二选择。然而,需要注意的是:就精神分裂症本身而言,多巴胺的过度影响并不像字面意义上所讲的,是因为产生了大量的神经递质分子,而是由于数量正常的多巴胺通过异常地作用于目标受体或通过其他一些大脑的异常处理而导致了多巴胺效应的放大。无论如何,诸如典型的精神分裂症患者所表现出的症状,这样一系列复杂的感觉和认知障碍,绝非用一个信号系统就可以简单地解释。然而,关键的一点是,大脑化学物质、这些化学物质的靶点以及神经元回路重组之间有着微妙的相互影响,而多巴胺在其中扮演着重要的角色(尽管不是唯一的角色),这最终构成了一个人的“心智”。如果确实如此的话,如果正如我们前面所说的,“理解”是从另一个角度看待某个事物的话,那么缺乏联系将会缺乏理解,特别是当涉及谚语中所体现的那些抽象概念时更是如此。此外,从更广泛的角度看,儿童和精神分裂症患者似乎都缺乏逻辑性,而他们的思维过程通常以破碎且怪异的理由为特点。这些看似不合理且令人感到诧异的联系,在广泛的自我表达载体中会表现得非常明显,这种奇怪表现在儿童绘画中便是不切实际的色彩组合,如将羊涂成紫色,或是胡乱堆砌出“单词沙拉”这种抽象的视觉模式,难以理解的词或短语的混合,这些在儿童的艺术作品或精神分裂症患者的诗歌中十分常见。Brisch, R.et al.‘The role of dopamine in schizophrenia from a neurobiological and evo-lutionary perspective:old-fashioned, but still in vogue’.Frontiers in Psychiatry ,5,47(2014).Kasanin, J.S.Language and Teought in Schizophrenia .(University of California Press,1944).Mujica-Parodi, L.R.,Malaspina, D.&Sackeim, H.A.‘Logical processing, affect and delusional thought in schizophrenia’.Harvard Review of Psychiatry ,8,73-83.Caplan, R.et al.‘Formal thought disorder in childhood onset schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder’.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry ,31,1103-14(1990).
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19 Gao, Wang&Goldman-Rakic,2003.
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20 Tsujimoto,2008;另请参阅Welsh, M.C.&Pennington, B.F.‘Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children:views from developmental psychology.Developmental Neuropsychology ,4,199-230(1988).
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21 Parsons et al.,2013.
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22 Callicott, J. H.et al.‘Physiological dysfunction of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia revisited’.Cerebral Cortex ,10,1078-92(2000).
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23 Ferron et al.,1984.
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24 Davis, C. et al.‘Decision-making deficits and overeating:a risk model for obesity’.Obesity Research&Clinical Practice ,12,929-35(2004);另请参阅Pignatti, R.et al.‘Decision-making in obesity:a study using the Gambling Task’.Eating and Weight Disorders ,11,126-32(2006).
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25 Tataranni, P. A.&DelParigi, A.‘Functional neuroimaging:a new generation of human brain studies in obesity research’.Obesity Reviews ,4,229-38(2003).
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26 Tanabe, J. et al.‘Prefrontal cortex activity is reduced in gambling and non-gam-bling substance users during decision-making’.Human Brain Mapping ,28,1276-86(2007).
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27 Shimamura, A. P.‘Memory and the prefrontal cortex’.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences ,769,151-9(1995).
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28 Cole, M. W.et al.‘Global connectivity of prefrontal cortex predicts cognitive control and intelligence’.Journal of Neuroscience ,32,8988-99(2012).
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29 The table is adapted from one in Greenfield, S. A.Mind Change:How Digital Technologies are Leaving Teeir Mark on Our Brains .(Random House,2014).
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30 Rosen, L. D.et al.‘Media and technology use predicts ill-being among children, preteens and teenagers independent of the negative health impacts of exercise and eating habits’.Computers in Human Behavior ,35,364-75(2014).
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31 来自旧金山加利福尼亚大学的迈克尔·梅泽尼希(Michael Merzenich)教授是一位经验诱发大脑可塑性方面的专家,他给出了相对应的典型的神经科学视角。他警告说:“生于数字时代的[数字原住民],他们在生活中的大脑可塑性与早年出生的普通人群相比存在着巨大的、前所未有的差异,而且毫无疑问,现代人大脑的运作特征存在本质上的差异。”诸如此类的变化以及影响下一代可能的思考和感受方式的证据不断积累,现在已经被证实:可以说,这种向网络环境的彻底转变通常会从整体上产生更敏捷的心理加工过程,而同样也会产生不恰当的鲁莽,缺乏共情能力和人际交往能力,自恋的倾向,进取心不足以及脆弱的认同感,与上述损失并存的益处是,这种转变可能提升感觉运动协调能力,改善智商测验中的表现和反应时间以及工作记忆。Bavelier, D.et al.‘Brains on video games’.National Review of Neuroscience ,12,763-8(2011).Greenfield, S.A.,2014.
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32 Koepp, M. J.et al.‘Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game’.Nature ,393,266-8(1998);另请参阅 Weinstein, A.M.‘Computer and video game addiction-a comparison between game users and non-game users’.American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse ,36,268-76(2010).
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33 Greenfield, S. A.,2014.
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34 Yuan, K. et al.‘Microstructure abnormalities in adolescents with internet addiction disorder’.PLoS One ,6,e20708(2011).
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35 这是一个充满争议的复杂话题,更充分的讨论参见:Greenfield, S.A.,2014.
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36 Freis, E. D.&Ari, R.‘Clinical and experimental effects of reserpine in patients with essential hypertension’.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences ,59,45-53(1954).
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37 Nutt, D. J.‘The role of dopamine and norepinephrine in depression and anti-depressant treatment’.Journal of Clinical Psychiatry ,67(suppl.6),3-8(2006).
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