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48 Mason, L. et al.‘Decision-making and trait impulsivity in bipolar disorder are associated with reduced prefrontal regulation of striatal reward valuation’.Brain ，137，2346-55（2014）.
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49 Hercher, C.，Chopra, V.&Beasley, C. L.‘Evidence for morphological alterations in prefrontal white matter glia in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder’.Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience ，39，130277（2014）.
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50 Muzina, D. J.&Calabrese, J.R.‘Maintenance therapies in bipolar disorder：focus on randomized controlled trials’.Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry ，39，652-61（2005）.
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51 Lautenbacher, S.&Krieg, J. C.‘Pain perception in psychiatric disorders：a review of the literature’.Journal of Psychiatric Research ，28，109-22（1994）；另请参阅Guieu, R.，Samuélian, J.C.&Coulouvrat, H.‘Objective evaluation of pain perception in patients with schizophrenia’.British Journal of Psychiatry ，164，253-5（1994）；以及Dworkin, R.H.‘Pain insensitivity in schizophrenia：a neglected phenomenon and some implications’.Schizophrenia Bulletin ，20，235-48（1994）.
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52 Giles, L. L.，Singh, M.K.&Nasrallah, H.A.‘Too much or too little pain：the dichotomy of pain sensitivity in psychotic versus other psychiatric disorders’.Current Psychosis and Teerapeutics Reports ，4，134-8（2006）.
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53 Adler, G.&Gattaz, W. F.‘Pain perception threshold in major depression’.Biological Psychiatry ，34，687-9（1993）；另请参阅 Diener, H.C.，van Schayck, R.&Kastrup, O.‘Pain and depression’inPain and the Brain from Nociception to Cognition （eds.Bromm, B.&Desmedt, J.E.）345-55（Raven Press，1995）.
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54 不过话又说回来，Jasper和Penfield发现，从切除各种癫痫患者相当大一部分大脑皮层（包括不同的区域）并不能使他们不再感受到疼痛。Penfield, W.&Jasper, H.‘Epilepsy and the functional anatomy of the human brain’.（Little, Brown&Co.，1954）.
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55 Hall, K. R.&Stride, E.‘The varying response to pain in psychiatric disorders：a study in abnormal psychology’.British Journal of Medical Psychology ，27，48-60（1954）；另请参阅 Pöllmann, L.&Harris, P.H.‘Rhythmic changes in pain sen-sitivity in teeth’.International Journal of Chronobiology ，5，459-64（1978）.
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56 Koyama, T. et al.‘The subjective experience of pain：where expectations become reality.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ，102，12950-5（2005）.
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57 Ramachandran, V. S.&Blakeslee, S.Phantoms in the Brain：Probing the Mysteries of the Human Mind .（Harper Perennial，1998）.
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58 Melzack, R.&Wall, P. D.Tee Challenge of Pain .（Penguin，1996）.
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59 Kupers, R. C.，Konings, H.，Adriaensen, H.&Gybels, J.M.‘Morphine differentially affects the sensory and affective pain ratings in neurogenic and idiopathic forms of pain’.Pain ，47，5-12（1991）.
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60 Ponterio, G. et al.‘Powerful inhibitory action of mu opioid receptors（MOR）on cholinergic interneuron excitability in the dorsal striatum’.Neuropharmacology ，75，78-85（2013）.
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61 Lautenbacher&Krieg，1994；另请参阅 Guieu, Samuélian&Coulouvrat，1994；and Dworkin，1994.
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62 Rang, H. P.et al.Rang and Dale’s Pharmacology .（Churchill Livingstone，2012）.
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63 Bergman, N. A.‘Michael Faraday and his contribution to anesthesia’.Anesthesiology ，77，812-16（1992）.
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64 http：//www. dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2377857/Nitrous-oxide-Laughing-gas-known-hippy-crack-2nd-popular-legal-high-drug-young-people.html
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65 最近的新闻报道：http：//www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/27/raver-drug-ketamine-control-plan-at-un-condemned-as-potential-disaster
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66 Buigues, C. et al.‘The relationship between depression and frailty syndrome：a systematic review’.Aging&Mental Health ，1-11（2014）.
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67 Winocur, G.&Moscovitch, M.‘A comparison of cognitive function in community-dwelling and institutionalized old people of normal intelligence’.Canadian Journal of Psychology ，44，435-44（1990）.
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68 Scarmeas, N.&Stern, Y.‘Cognitive reserve and lifestyle’.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology ，25，625-33（2003）.
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69 Engvig, A. et al.‘Effects of memory training on cortical thickness in the elderly’.NeuroImage ，52，1667-76（2010）.
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70 Small, G. W.&Greenfield, S.‘Current and future treatments for Alzheimer dis-ease’.American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry ，23，1101-5（2015）.
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71 一种流行的观点是，真正导致阿尔茨海默病神经元破坏的化学元凶是一种异常形成的物质，在希腊语中被称为“淀粉”（starch）：淀粉样物质，这是目前进行更有效的新型药物研究的中心。然而，迄今为止，对抗淀粉样物质的药物在过去几十年的临床研究中始终令人感到失望。似乎这些大脑中的异常沉淀可能只是一种附属因素，但再一次，这并不是问题的核心：对之前健康的大脑进行实体解剖时也可以发现淀粉样物质，因此，这类物质的出现是阿尔茨海默病的必要而非充分因素。目前，另一个正在进行研究的目标是在阿尔茨海默病患者大脑中发现的另一种组织学异常：“缠结（tangles）”，一种细胞内微管错误的排列，我们曾在第一章中提到过。目前还没有原因可以解释为什么在阿尔茨海默病中淀粉样物质斑块或蛋白缠结是导致细胞死亡的始动因素，以及因此出现的神经元集合萎缩。此外，斑块和缠结对所有细胞都有非特异性的杀伤作用：参阅Small&Green-field，同上。与此相反，阿尔茨海默病的罪魁祸首肯定与此不同，并且更具有选择性，因为在该病患者的大脑中，只有特定的神经元群更容易发生退行性病变。Greenfield, S.A.&Vaux, D.J.‘Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease and motor neurone disease.Identifying a common mechanism’.Neuro-science ，113，485-92（2002）.
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72 Aarsland, D. et al.‘Frequency of dementia in Parkinson disease’.Archives of Neurology ，53，538-42（1996）；另请参阅Calne, D.B.et al.‘Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and motorneurone disease：abiotrophic interaction between ageing and environment?’Lancet，2，1067-70（1986）；以及Horvath, J.et al.‘Neuropathology of Parkinsonism in patients with pure Alzheimer’s disease’.Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease ，39，115-20（2014）.
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