打字猴:1.700687716e+09
1700687716 28  顶叶——枕叶——颞部交叉区包含了一部分顶叶,一部分颞叶和一部分枕叶,该区域作为听觉、视觉和身体感觉输入的整合区,同时将信息输出到包括边缘区和前额叶在内的其他广泛的区域中去。另请参阅:Maquet, P.et al.‘Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming’.Nature ,383,163-6(1996).
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1700687718 29  Epstein, A. W.‘Effect of certain cerebral hemispheric diseases on dreaming’.Biological Psychiatry ,14,77-93(1979);另请参阅Maquet, P.‘Functional neu-roimaging of normal human sleep by positron emission tomography’.Journal of Sleep Research,9,207-31(2000);以及Jakobson, A.J.,Fitzgerald, P.B.&Conduit, R.‘Induction of visual dream reports after transcranial direct current stimulation(tDCs)during Stage 2 sleep’.Journal of Sleep Research ,21,369-79(2012).
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1700687720 30  Solms, M.‘Dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mecha-nisms’.Behavioral and Brain Sciences ,23,843-50;discussion 904-1121(2000).
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1700687722 31  Büchel, C.et al.‘Different activation patterns in the visual cortex of late and congenitally blind subjects’.Brain ,121,Pt 3,409-19(1998).
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1700687724 32  同上。
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1700687726 33  Horikawa, T. et al.‘Neural decoding of visual imagery during sleep’.Science ,340,639-42(2013).
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1700687728 34  Nir&Tononi,2010.
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1700687730 35  同上。
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1700687732 36  Penfield, W.&Perot, P.‘The brain’s record of auditory and visual experience. A final summary and discussion’.Brain ,86,595-696(1963).
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1700687734 37  Hobson, J. A.The Chemistry of Conscious States:How the Brain Changes Its Mind .(Little, Brown&Co.,1994);另请参阅Scarone, S.et al.‘The dream as a model for psychosis:an experimental approach using bizarreness as a cognitive marker’.Schizophrenia Bulletin ,34,515-22(2008);以及Limosani, I.et al.‘The dreaming brain/mind, consciousness and psychosis’.Consciousness and Cognition ,20,987-92(2011).
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1700687736 38  Brisch, R. et al.‘The role of dopamine in schizophrenia from a neurobiological and evolutionary perspective:old-fashioned, but still in vogue’.Frontiers in Psychiatry ,5,47(2014).
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1700687738 39  Solms, M.&Turnbull, O.Tee Brain and the Inner World .(Other Press,2002).
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1700687740 40  Monti, J. M.&Monti, D.‘The involvement of dopamine in the modulation of sleep and waking’.Sleep Medicine Reviews ,11,113-33(2007).
1700687741
1700687742 41  通常情况下,多巴胺的分泌受到一种与快速眼动睡眠密切相关的神经递质的调节,这种神经递质被称为乙酰胆碱(ACh),它在大脑和脑干深部发挥着作用:然而,当乙酰胆碱系统不能运作时,多巴胺也可以独立地在皮层上发挥作用,就像在独立于快速眼动睡眠的梦境中所表现的那样。此时,多巴胺在指令链中的位置进一步上升,超过了产生快速眼动睡眠的脑干机制,更直接地作用于前额叶皮层的最终过程,而这些过程与实际的梦其本身有关。那么是什么导致多巴胺在这种情况下被释放的呢?什么也不是。事实证明不需要其他任何东西,甚至连感觉输入都不需要。在听觉和视觉等感官都缺失的情况下,以及当乙酰胆碱不发挥作用时,正如在非快速眼动睡眠的梦境中那样,脑干中的多巴胺细胞表现出一种“自动节律性”:一个兴奋性不断变化的持续周期,在这个周期中,兴奋性的不断变化导致周期性的动作电位爆发,进而导致多巴胺在“高级”目标脑区释放。Grace, A.A.&Bunney, B.S.‘The control of firing pattern in nigral dopamine neurons:burst firing’.Journal of Neuroscience ,4,2877-90(1984).Grace, A.A.&Bunney, B.S.‘The control of firing pattern in nigral dopamine neurons:single spike firing’.Journal of Neuroscience ,4,2866-76(1984).
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1700687744 42  Ferron, A. et al.‘Inhibitory influence of the mesocortical dopaminergic system on spontaneous activity or excitatory response induced from the thalamic me-diodorsal nucleus in the rat medial prefrontal cortex’.Brain Research ,302,257-65(1984);另请参阅Gao, W.-J.,Wang, Y.&Goldman-Rakic, P.S.‘Dopamine modulation of perisomatic and peridendritic inhibition in prefrontal cortex’.Journal of Neuroscience ,23,1622-30(2003).
1700687745
1700687746 43  Nir&Tononi,2010;另请参阅 Dang-Vu, T.T.et al.‘Functional neuroimaging insights into the physiology of human sleep’.Sleep ,33,1589-603(2010).
1700687747
1700687748 44  Solms,2000.
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1700687750 45  首先,在神经元的不同部位上,多巴胺可能会对更细微的局部电流产生其他的影响,因此也可能对动作电位不起任何作用,因而不适用于这里所使用的记录方法。其次,在前额叶中,多巴胺的零星释放所引起的抑制作用会对局部环路中的连接细胞产生产生解除抑制的净效应:这一活动随之将以一种在完全没有活动的情况下并不会出现的方式改变前额叶皮层自身最终的输出结果。第三,前额叶的大范围实验性损伤会导致所有细胞无差别地被破坏,然而在正常完整的大脑中,多巴胺选择性的天然靶向性将不可避免地无法对所有前额叶细胞产生同样的影响。Lambert, R.C.et al.‘The many faces of T-type calcium channels’.Pflügers Archiv.European Journal of Physiology ,466,415-23(2014).Holthoff, K.,Kovalchuk, Y.&Konnerth, A.‘Dendritic spikes and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity’.Cell Tissue Research ,326,369-77(2006).
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1700687752 46  Nielsen, T. A.et al.‘Pain in dreams’.Sleep ,16,490-8(1993).
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1700687754 47  Lautenbacher, S.&Krieg, J. C.‘Pain perception in psychiatric disorders:a review of the literature’.Journal of Psychiatric Research ,28,109-22(1994);另请参阅Guieu, R.,Samuélian, J.C.&Coulouvrat, H.‘Objective evaluation of pain perception in patients with schizophrenia’.British Journal of Psychiatry ,164,253-5(1994).
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1700687756 48  Casey, B. J.,Getz, S.&Galvan, A.‘The adolescent brain’.Developmental Review ,28,62-77(2008);另请参阅Sturman, D.A.&Moghaddam, B.‘The neurobiology of adolescence:changes in brain architecture, functional dynamics and behavioral tendencies’.Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews ,35,1704-12(2011).
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1700687758 49  Toda, M.&Abi-Dargham, A.‘Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia:making sense of it all’.Current Psychiatry Reports ,9,329-36(2007).
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1700687760 50  Zadra, A. L.,Nielsen, T.A.&Donderi, D.C.‘Prevalence of auditory, olfactory and gustatory experiences in home dreams’.Perceptual and Motor Skills ,87,819-26(1998).
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1700687762 51  脑脊液(大脑和脊髓浸泡于其中的液体)中的多巴胺(或者是其代谢产物,高香草酸[HVA])水平随着年龄的增长也跟着逐渐增加,然而5-羟色胺的代谢产物5-羟吲哚乙酸(5-HT)并没有任何变化(对比早产儿和足月新生儿)。
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1700687764 52  Klemm, W. R.‘Why does REM sleep occur?A wake-up hypothesis’.Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience ,5,73(2011).
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