打字猴:1.700687871e+09
1700687871
1700687872 29  Wittmann, M. et al.‘Impaired time perception and motor timing in stimu-lant-dependent subjects’.Drug and Alcohol Dependence ,90,183-92(2007);另请参阅Cheng, R.-K.,MacDonald, C.J.&Meck, W.H.‘Differential effects of cocaine and ketamine on time estimation:implications for neurobiological models of interval timing’.Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior ,85,114-22(2006).
1700687873
1700687874 30  Tinklenberg, J. R.,Roth, W.T.&Kopell, B.S.‘Marijuana and ethanol:differential effects on time perception, heart rate and subjective response.Psychophar-macology (Berl),49,275-9(1976).
1700687875
1700687876 31  Arzy, S.,Molnar-Szakacs, I.&Blanke, O.‘Self in time:imagined self-location influences neural activity related to mental time travel’.Journal of Neuroscience ,28,6502-7(2008).
1700687877
1700687878 32  Kolb, B. et al.‘Experience and the developing prefrontal cortex’.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA ,109(suppl.),17186-93(2012).
1700687879
1700687880 33  Cooper, B. B.‘The science of time perception:stop it slipping away by doing new things’.Buffer Blog (2013).
1700687881
1700687882 34  Brown, J.‘Motion expands perceived time. On time perception in visual move-ment fields’.Psychologische Forschung ,14,233-48(1931).
1700687883
1700687884 35  Eagleman,2008;see also Schiffman, H. R.&Bobko, D.J.‘Effects of stimulus complexity on the perception of brief temporal intervals’.Journal of Experimental Psychology ,103,156-9(1974).
1700687885
1700687886 36  Lucentini, J.‘It’s neuron time’.Science ,17,32-3(Nov. 2003).
1700687887
1700687888 37  时空流形是一种数学模型,它可以从小到亚原子,大到超星系的尺度上将时间和空间描述为一个单一的连续统一体,其中时间作为第四个维度,被称为闵可夫斯基空间(Minkowski space),作为我们所熟知的三维空间的补充。这种流形可以是“非定位的”,因为它完全无法用空间坐标进行定义。
1700687889
1700687890 38  Critchley, M.The Parietal Lobes .(Edwin Arnold,1953).
1700687891
1700687892 39  Walsh,2003.
1700687893
1700687894 40  Mitchell, C. T.&Davis, R.‘The perception of time in scale model environments’.Perception ,16,5-16(1987).
1700687895
1700687896 41  DeLong, A. J.‘Phenomenological space-time:toward an experiential relativity’.Science ,213,681-3(1981).
1700687897
1700687898 42  Rudd, M.,Vohs, K. D.&Aaker, J.‘Awe expands people’s perception of time, alters decision making and enhances well-being’.Psychological Science ,23,1130-6(2012).
1700687899
1700687900 43  Stetson, Fiesta&Eagleman,2007.
1700687901
1700687902 44  Sergent, C.,Baillet, S.&Dehaene, S.‘Timing of the brain events underlying access to consciousness during the attentional blink’.Nature and Neuroscience ,8,1391-1400(2005);另请参阅Libet, B.Mind Time:The Temporal Factor in Consciousness .(Harvard University Press,2004).
1700687903
1700687904 45  哺乳动物大脑皮层中的突触连接会在50微米到200微米之间的衰变,不会被任何单个刺激的参数差异所影响。Petreanu, L.et al.‘The subcellular organization of neocortical excitatory connections’.Nature ,457,1142-5(2009).Romand, S.et al.‘Morphological development of thick-tufted layer v pyramidal cells in the rat somatosensory cortex’.Frontiers in Neuroanatomy ,5,5(2011).Perin, R.,Berger, T.K.&Markram, H.‘A synaptic organizing principle for cortical neuronal groups’.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ,108,5419-24(2011).Boudkkazi, S.,Fronzaroli-Molinieres, L.&Debanne, D.‘Presynaptic action potential waveform deter-mines cortical synaptic latency’.Journal of Physiology ,589,1117-31(2011).
1700687905
1700687906 46  Chakraborty, S.,Sandberg, A.&Greenfield, S. A.‘Differential dynamics of transient neuronal assemblies in visual compared to auditory cortex’.Experimental Brain Research ,182,491-8(2007).
1700687907
1700687908 47  然而,神经元集合内活动的传播速度很缓慢,有时候需要几百毫秒,这一现象仅仅通过大量突触连接所产生的叠加效应便可以解释,借此,这种神经传递的复杂过程将极大地减低信号的速度。从神经递质被释放出来,进行扩散,直到在其受体处发挥作用大约需要0.75毫秒,这种潜在的冗长时间框架难道还不足以代表成百上千个连续突触连接的总和吗?答案是并不能:即使一个缓慢的兴奋性电位可以先于或源自于传统的突触活动,其时间尺度最大也只能持续20毫秒。这将意味着:在神经元集合中心的原始刺激初始位点很有可能在最初的100毫秒左右就发生了衰减,并且在这之前,神经元集合在其周界上有最大的活动强度:事实上,对立的空间模式始终能够观察到,即最强的活动总是出现在中心。
1700687909
1700687910 48  Hestrin, S.,Sah, P.&Nicoll, R. A.‘Mechanisms generating the time course of dual component excitatory synaptic currents recorded in hippocampal slices’.Neuron ,5,247-53(1990).Salin, P.A.&Prince, D.A.‘Spontaneous GAB-AA receptor-mediated inhibitory currents in adult rat somatosensory cortex’.Journal of Neurophysiology ,75,1573-88(1996).Katz, B.&Miledi, R.‘The measurement of synaptic delay, and the time course of acetylcholine release at the neuromuscular junction’.Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B.Biological Sciences ,161,483-95(1965).Sayer, R.J.,Friedlander, M.J.&Redman, S.J.‘The time course and amplitude of EPSPs evoked at synapses between pairs of CA3/CA1 neurons in the hippocampal slice’.Journal of Neuroscience ,10,826-36(1990).
1700687911
1700687912 49  尽管我们不能完全排除这样一个事实,即皮层内回路的传导速度仅为正常速度的四分之一,但也有证据表明,如果有可能的话,他会提高到正常速度的十倍。Salami, M.et al.‘Change of conduction velocity by regional myelination yields constant latency irrespective of distance between thalamus and cortex’.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ,100,6174-9(2003).
1700687913
1700687914 50  Taber, K. H.&Hurley, R.A.‘Volume transmission in the brain:beyond the synapse’.Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuro-science ,26,iv,1-4(2014);另请参阅Agnati, L.F.et al.‘Information handling by the brain:proposal of a new“paradigm”involving the roamer type of volume transmission and the tunneling nanotube type of wiring transmission’.Journal of Neural Transmission (2014).
1700687915
1700687916 51  Cheramy, A.,Leviel, V.&Glowinski, J.‘Dendritic release of dopamine in the substantia nigra’.Nature ,289,537-42(1981). Greenfield, S.et al.‘In vivo release of acetylcholinesterase in cat substantia nigra and caudate nucleus’.Nature ,284,355-7(1980).Greenfield, S.A.‘The signifcance of dendritic release of transmitter and protein in the substantia nigra’.Neurochemistry International ,7,887-901(1985).Nedergaard, S.,Bolam, J.P.&Greenfield, S.A.‘Facilitation of a dendritic calcium conductance by 5-hydroxytryptamine in the substantia nigra’.Nature ,333,174-7(1988).Chen, B.T.et al.‘Differential calcium dependence of axonal versus somatodendritic dopamine release, with characteristics of both in the ventral tegmental area’.Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience ,5,39(2011).Mercer, L.,del Fiacco, M.&Cuello, A.C.‘The smooth endoplasmic reticulum as a possible storage site for dendritic dopamine in substantia nigra neurones’.Experientia ,35,101-3(1979).
1700687917
1700687918 52  在哺乳动物中,大脑皮层的传导速度在0.1到0.5米/秒之间;也就是说,动作电位沿着轴突(axon)传递的速度是100到500毫米/秒(0.1到0.5毫米/毫秒)。与这一速度一致的是,当刺激从其来源发出后(例如,丘脑,一个突触,间距有2.5毫米),大脑皮层中神经元集合形成的第一个信号出现在5毫秒的时候(图10)。但随后,一旦出现了两个区域之间的突触传递,神经元集合需要额外花费15至20毫秒来达到最大速度,这一速度慢的惊人,以至于突触无法靠其自身进行传递,当然对于被动扩散来说这一速度还是太快了。González-Burgos, G.,Barrionuevo, G.&Lewis, D.A.‘Horizontal synaptic connections in monkey prefrontal cortex:anin vitro elec-trophysiological study’.Cerebral Cortex ,10,82-92(2000).Stuart, G.,Schiller, J.&Sakmann, B.‘Action potential initiation and propagation in rat neocortical pyramidal neurons’.Journal of Physiology ,505(Pt 3)617-32(1997).
1700687919
1700687920 53  两个并列的细胞分别形成一个半通道共同组成了间隙连接,这两个半通道由蛋白质(连接类蛋白)构成。
[ 上一页 ]  [ :1.700687871e+09 ]  [ 下一页 ]