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[476]Amrit Singh, Globalizing Torture:CIA Secret Detention and Extraordi-nary Rendition(New York:Open Society Foundation,2013).
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[477]这并不是否认在某些情况下,逮捕恐怖分子嫌疑人是不可行的,因此美国决策者别无选择,只能暗杀或放手。然而,在此的重点是可能抓获嫌疑人,但由于涉及与被拘留者打交道的所有法律问题,结果的决定却是杀了嫌疑人的案件。
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[478]Jo Becker and Scott Shane,“Secret‘Kill List’Proves a Test of Obama’s Principlesand Will,”New York Times, May 29,2012;Clive Stafford Smith,“Who’s Getting Killed Today?,”Times Literary Supplement, June 28,2017.
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[479]Micah Zenko,“How Barack Obama Has Tried to Open Up the One-Si-ded Drone War,”Financial Times, May 23,2013.2016年1月,津科(Zenko)写道:“虽然小布什总统批准了大约50次无人机袭击,在也门、巴基斯坦和索马里造成296名恐怖分子和195名平民死亡,但奥巴马批准了506次袭击,造成3 040名恐怖分子和391名平民死亡。”Micah Zenko,“Obama’s Embrace of Drone Strikes Will Be a Lasting Legacy,”New York Times, January 12,2016.也可参见Micah Zenko,“Do Not Believe the U.S.Government’s Official Num-bers on Drone Strike Civilian Casualties:It’s Way, Way Too Low,”Foreign Policy, July 5,2016;“Get the Data:Drone Wars,”The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, September 13,2016,https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/cate-gory/projects/drones/drones-graphs/。
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[480]Tom Engelhardt, Shadow Government:Surveillance, Secret Wars, and a GlobalSecurity State in a Single-Superpower World(Chicago:Haymarket Books,2014),pp.88—89.
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[481]引自Doyle McManus,“Who Reviews the U.S.Kill List?,”Los An-geles Times, February 5,2012。
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[482]这并不是否认两极或多极体系下的大国竞争让他们别无选择,而只能在和平时期,当然也会在战时保留大量军事力量,这可能对公民自由造成威胁。然而,在单极体系中,单一大国有减少其军事规模和避免战争的选择,只因为它是如此强大。在此情况下,唯一的极国家的外交政策不会威胁到国内的自由主义。另一方面,自由主义霸权确保了单极将最终建立起庞大的军事系统,并沉迷于战争。
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[483]这一段和下两段中的所有引用都出自James C.Scott, Seeing Like a State:How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed(New Haven, CT:Yale University Press,1998),pp.4—5。
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[484]也可参见John Gray, Black Mass:Apocalyptic Religion and the Death of Utopia(New York:Farrar, Straus and Giroux,2007),他没有提到斯科特,但提出了与我类似的论点。
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[485]Immanuel Kant, Perpetual Peace(Minneapolis:Filiquarian,2007),pp.13—32.
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[486]Bruce Russett and John R.Oneal, Triangulating Peace:Democracy, In-terdependence, and International Organizations(New York:Norton,2000).
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[487]Michael W.Doyle,“Three Pillars of the Liberal Peace,”American Political Science Review 99,no.3(August 2005):463.关于这些理论捆绑在一起的其他例子,参见Dale C.Copeland, Economic Interdependence and War(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,2015),pp.24—25。
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[488]Strobe Talbott,“Why NATO Should Grow,”New York Review of Books, August 10,1995.塔尔博特对北约扩张的看法在克林顿政府的高层中得到广泛认同。参见Warren Christopher,“Reinforcing NATO’s Strength in the West and Deepening Cooperation with the East”(opening statement at the North Atlantic Council Ministerial Meeting, Noordwijk, Netherlands, May 30,1995);Made-leine Albright,“A Presidential Tribute to Gerald Ford”(Ford Museum Auditori-um, Grand Rapids, MI, April 17,1997);Madeleine Albright, Commencement Address, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, June 5,1997。
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[489]Madeleine Albright,“American Principle and Purpose in East Asia”(1997 Forrestal Lecture, U.S.Naval Academy, Annapolis, MD, April 15,1997).也可参见Warren Christopher,“America and the Asia-Pacific Future”(address to the Asia Society, New York City, May 27,1994);“A National Security Strate-gy of Engagement and Enlargement,”The White House, February 1995,pp.28—29;“A National Security Strategy for a New Century,”The White House, October 1998,pp.41—47。在2005年,美国副国务卿罗伯特·佐利克(Robert Zoellick)首次提出了“负责任的利益相关者”一词。Zoellick,“Whither China?From Membership to Responsibility”(remarks to the National Committee on U.S.-China Relations, New York City, September 21,2005).
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[490]Alexander Wendt,“Anarchy Is What States Make of It:The Social Con-struction of Power Politics,”International Organization 46,no.2(Spring 1992):408.
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[491]John M.Owen,“How Liberalism Produces Democratic Peace,”Interna-tional Security 19,no.2(Fall 1994):87;Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democrat-ic Peace:Principles for a Post-Cold War World(Princeton, NJ:Princeton Univer-sity Kant Press,1993),p.4.
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[492]Michael W.Doyle,“Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs,”part 1,Philosophy and Public Affairs 12,no.3(Summer 1983):213.在同一页上,他写道:“对于自由主义国家不互相打仗倾向,似乎有一些例外。”
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[493]Doyle,“Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs,”part 1,pp.205—235;Michael W.Doyle,“Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs,”part 2,Philosophy and Public Affairs 12,no.4(Fall 1983):323—353.也可参见Michael W.Doyle,“Liberalism and World Politics,”American Political Science Review 80,no.4(December 1986):1151—1169。
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[494]Arch Puddington and Tyler Roylance,“Populists and Autocrats:The Dual Threatto Global Democracy,”in Freedom in the World,2017(Washington, DC:Freedom House,2017),p.4.也可参见Anxious Dictators, Wavering Democ-racies:Global Freedom under Pressure, Freedom House’s Annual Report on Politi-cal Rights and Civil Liberties(Washington, DC:Freedom House,2016);Larry Diamond and Marc F.Plattner, eds.,Democracy in Decline?(Baltimore:JohnsHopkins University Press,2015);Larry Diamond, Marc F.Plattner, and Chris-topher Walker, eds.,Authoritarianism Goes Global:The Challenge to Democracy(Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,2016)。
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[495]关于德国为什么有资格成为自由民主国家的精彩讨论,参见Christo-pher Layne,“Shell Games, Shallow Gains, and the Democratic Peace,”International History Review 23,no.4(December 2001):803—807。也可参见Ido Oren,“The Subjectivity of the‘Democratic’Peace:Changing U.S.Percep-tions of Imperial Germany,”International Security 20,no.2(Fall 1995):147—184。在1900年的英国,18%的人口被授予议会下院的投票权,而在德国,这个数字是22%。Niall Ferguson, Pity of War:Explaining World War I(New York:Basic Books,1999),p.29.甚至迈克尔·多伊尔也承认“帝国主义的德国是一个困难的案例”。Doyle,“Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs,”part 1,p.216.
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[496]民主和平理论家排除了这个案例,要么是因为他们认为这两个南非国家没有充分独立于英国,要么是因为南非共和国不够民主。但这两方面都是错误的。这两个国家都明确确立了独立地位,即使英国不想授予它们完全的主权,并且尽管南非共和国确实将某些群体排除在投票权之外,但当时几乎所有其他民主国家都是如此。
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[497]卡吉尔战争是一个没有争议的案例。美西战争是一个有争议的案例;克里斯托弗·莱恩(Christopher Layne)解释了为什么它应该被视为两个民主国家互相争斗的案例。Layne,“Shell Games,”p.802.
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[498]例如,詹姆斯·李·雷(James Lee Ray)考察了20起被认为是民主国家之间交战的案例。参见James L.Ray, Democracy and International Conflict:An Evaluation of the Democratic Peace Proposition(Columbia:University of South Carolina Press,2009),chap.3。也可参见Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace, pp.16—23;Spencer R.Weart, Never at War:Why Democracies Will Not Fight One Another(New Haven, CT:Yale University Press,1998)。一个国家是不是“所谓的”民主国家取决于一个人如何定义民主,有时会受到观察者偏见的影响。Sarah S.Bush,“The Politics of Rating Freedom:Ideological Af-finity, Private Authority, and the Freedom in the World Ratings,”Perspectives on Politics 15,no.3(September 2017):711—731;Oren,“The Subjectivity of the‘Democratic’Peace.”
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[499]军事化的冲突是指一国对另一国威胁、展示或使用军事力量,而不是战争(战斗死亡达1 000人)。布鲁斯·拉西特认为,尽管民主国家相互之间确实在进行军事化冲突,但它们这样做的频率比至少有一个争端国是非民主国家的情况要低。Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace, pp.20—21,72—93.他也许是对的,但关键是它们确实在互相斗争,即使这些冲突的致命性还不足以构成战争。
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[500]Ray, Democracy and International Conflict, p.42.毫不惊奇,雷试图推翻每一个可能被视为民主国家相互斗争的案例。因此,他总结了关于这些案例的主要章节:“持怀疑态度的,甚至可能只是不感兴趣的读者可能会得出这样的结论,即对于民主国家从不进行国际战争的主张,表面上的大量例外情况会损害其可信度。‘如果有那么多的烟,肯定至少会有一点火’,这是可以理解的反应。”(第124页)
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