打字猴:1.70291106e+09
1702911060
1702911061 举个例子,有人可能认为英国和法国应该在1936年希特勒重新军事化莱茵兰时直接面对希特勒,而不是等到1939年才在波兰问题上面对希特勒。毕竟,1939年的国防军比1936年更强大。这个例子指出,“少了一颗钉子”的逻辑适用于涉及“最高紧急情况”的案例。对于一个国家而言,在一个潜在的、危险的敌人变成一个真实存在的威胁之前应对它是有道理的,而不是等到发现自己陷入困境时。
1702911062
1702911063 [540]Dale C.Copeland,“The Constructivist Challenge to Structural Realism:A Review Essay,”International Security 25,no.2(Fall 2000):187—212;Copeland, Economic Interdependence and War, pp.39—42;Copeland, The Ori-gins of Major War, pp.15,22,29;Dale C.Copeland,“Rationalist Theories of International Politics and the Problem of the Future,”Security Studies 20,no.3(July-September 2011):441—450.
1702911064
1702911065 [541]“雨天”逻辑不同于“少了一颗钉子”的逻辑。根据雨天的逻辑,目前没有证据表明某个特定国家是威胁,但总有可能它在未来成为威胁。根据“少了一颗钉子”的逻辑,另一个国家是威胁,但还不是一个真正的威胁。然而,这个国家也有可能成为致命的威胁。这种逻辑是预防性战争的基础。
1702911066
1702911067 [542]民族主义是当代中国特别强大的力量,它可能对中国决策者和公众如何全面思考国际政治产生重大影响。参见William A.Callahan, China:The Pessoptimist Nation(New York:Oxford University Press,2010);Peter Hays Gries, China’s New Nationalism:Pride, Politics, and Diplomacy(Berkeley:U-niversity of California Press,2004);Christopher R.Hughes, Chinese National-ism in the Global Era(London:Routledge,2006);Christopher Hughes,“Re-classifying Chinese Nationalism:The Geopolitik Turn,”Journal of Contemporary China 20,no 71(September 2011):601—620;Zheng Wang, Never Forget Na-tional Humiliation:Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations(New York:Columbia University Press,2012);Suisheng Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction:Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism(Stanford, CA:Stan-ford University Press,2004);Suisheng Zhao,“Foreign Policy Implications of Chinese Nationalism Revisited:The Strident Turn,”Journal of Contemporary China 22,no.82(July 2013):535—553.
1702911068
1702911069 [543]Robert A.Pape,“Why Economic Sanctions Do Not Work,”Interna-tional Security 22,no.2(Fall 1997):90—136.
1702911070
1702911071 [544]Pape, Bombing to Win, chaps.4,8.
1702911072
1702911073 [545]Andrei Kolesnikov,“Russian Ideology after Crimea,”Carnegie Moscow Center, September 2015;Alexander Lukin,“What the Kremlin Is Thinking:Putin’s Vision for Eurasia,”Foreign Affairs 93,no.4(July/August 2014):85—93.
1702911074
1702911075 [546]参见Gartzke,“The Capitalist Peace”;Edward D.Mansfield and Jon C.Pevehouse,“Trade Blocs, Trade Flows, and International Conflict,”Interna-tional Organization 54,no.4(Autumn 2000):775—808;John R.Oneal and Bruce M.Russett,“The Classical Liberals Were Right:Democracy, Interde-pendence, and Conflict,1950—1985,”International Studies Quarterly 41,no.2(June 1997):267—294。
1702911076
1702911077 [547]参见Barry Buzan,“Economic Structure and International Security:The Limits of the Liberal Case,”International Organization 38,no.4(Autumn 1984):597—624;Patrick J.McDonald,“The Purse Strings of Peace,”American Jour-nal of Political Science 51,no.3(July 2007):569—582;James D.Morrow,“How Could Trade Affect Conflict?,”Journal of Peace Research 36,no.4(July 1999):481—489.
1702911078
1702911079 [548]参见Barbieri and Levy,“Sleeping with the Enemy”;Katherine Bar-bieri, The Liberal Illusion:Does Trade Promote Peace?(Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press,2002);Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics(New York:Cambridge University Press,1981);Kenneth N.Waltz,“The Myth of National Interdependence,”in The International Corporation, ed.Charles P.Kindelberger(Cambridge, MA:MIT Press,1970),pp.205—223。
1702911080
1702911081 [549]这里的重点是研究自由主义对制度的看法。还有一个关于制度的单独的建构主义叙事,这不在本研究的范围内。参见John J.Mearsheimer,“The False Promise of International Institutions,”International Security 19,no.3(Win-ter 1994/1995):5—49。
1702911082
1702911083 [550]Charles Lipson,“Is the Future of Collective Security Like the Past?”in Collective Security beyond the Cold War, ed.George W.Downs(Ann Arbor:U-niversity of Michigan Press,1994),p.114.
1702911084
1702911085 [551]制度和机制没有区别这一事实反映在Stephen D.Krasner,“Structural Causes and Regime Consequences:Regimes as Intervening Variables,”in“Inter-national Regimes,”ed.Stephen D.Krasner, special issue, International Organi-zation 36,no.2(Spring 1982):185—205。
1702911086
1702911087 [552]Robert O.Keohane, After Hegemony:Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,1984).
1702911088
1702911089 [553]例如,参见Helga Haftendorn, Robert O.Keohane, and Celeste A.Wallander, eds.,Imperfect Unions:Security Institutions over Time and Space(New York:Oxford University Press,1999);Celeste A.Wallander, Mortal Friends, Best Enemies:German-Russian Cooperation after the Cold War(Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press,1999);Seth Weinberger,“Institutional Signaling and the Origins of the Cold War,”Security Studies 12,no.4(Summer 2003):80—115。
1702911090
1702911091 [554]例如,参见Robert Axelrod and Robert O.Keohane,“Achieving Coop-eration under Anarchy:Strategies and Institutions,”World Politics 38,no.1(Oc-tober1985):226—254;Charles Lipson,“International Cooperation in Economic and Security Affairs,”World Politics 37,no.1(October 1984):1—23;Lisa L.Martin,“Institutions and Cooperation:Sanctions during the Falkland Islands Conflict,”International Security 16,no.4(Spring 1992):143—178;Lisa L.Martin, Coercive Cooperation:Explaining Multilateral Economic Sanctions(Prin-ceton, NJ:Princeton University Press,1992);Kenneth A.Oye,“Explaining Cooperation under Anarchy:Hypotheses and Strategies,”World Politics 38,no.1(October 1985):1—24;Arthur A.Stein, Why Nations Cooperate:Circumstance and Choice in International Relations(Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press,1990)。
1702911092
1702911093 [555]参见Haftendorn, Keohane, and Wallander, Imperfect Unions;Krasner,“Structural Causes and Regime Consequences,”p.192;Robert Jervis,“Security Regimes,”in Krasner,“International Regimes,”special issue, International Or-ganization, pp.357—378;Wallander, Mortal Friends, Best Enemies, pp.5,20,22。
1702911094
1702911095 [556]Lipson,“International Cooperation in Economic and Security Affairs,”pp.2,12.也可参见Axelrod and Keohane,“Achieving Cooperation under Anar-chy,”pp.232—233;Keohane, After Hegemony, pp.39—41。
1702911096
1702911097 [557]Lipson,“International Cooperation in Economic and Security Affairs,”p.18.
1702911098
1702911099 [558]Keohane, After Hegemony, pp.6—7.
1702911100
1702911101 [559]G.John Ikenberry, After Victory:Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,2001).也可参见G.John Ikenberry, Liberal Leviathan:The Origins, Cri-sis, and Transformation of the American World Order(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,2012)。
1702911102
1702911103 [560]Ikenberry, After Victory, p.xiii;Keohane, After Hegemony, p.16.
1702911104
1702911105 [561]Haftendorn, Keohane, and Wallander, Imperfect Unions, p.1.他们在结论中提出了适度的主张:“这本书认为制度理论可以阐明安全问题”(第326页)。沃兰德(Wallander)专注于德俄关系,他在《不共戴天的朋友,最为交好的敌人》(Mortal Friends, Best Enemies)一书中总结:“权力和利益仍然是德国和俄罗斯安全计算的核心”第6页。
1702911106
1702911107 [562]合作的另一个主要障碍是相对收益的考虑,我在此没有提到,主要是因为篇幅限制。我对此问题的看法参见Mearsheimer,“The False Promise of International Institutions,”pp.9—26。
1702911108
1702911109 [563]我们谈论的是自我约束,几乎每个自由主义者都知道,自我约束在一个国家内部是行不通的,这也解释了为什么需要一个有强制力的国家。那么,为什么会有人期望它在国际层次上发挥作用呢?
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