打字猴:1.702916143e+09
1702916143 [12] 1842年第一次鸦片战争结束后强加给中国的《南京条约》开放了中国港口与英国进行贸易往来。美国人紧随其后,两年后通过《望厦条约》打开了中国市场的大门。
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1702916145 [13] 对于中国正在发生的内部冲突,佩里建议采取“精明无为”(“masterly inactivity”)政策。参见John H. Schroeder,Matthew Calbraith Perry:Antebellum Sailor and Diplomat (Annapolis,MD:Naval Institute Press,2001),210-11。
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1702916147 [14] The 1842 Treaty of Nanking,August 29,1842,in Treaties,Conventions,etc. Between China and Foreign States,Vol. 1 (Shanghai,1917),351-56.
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1702916149 [15] Miller,ed.,Treaties and Other International Acts,Vol. 7,1070.
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1702916151 [16] Otsuka,“Japan’s Early Encounter with the Concept of the ‘Law of Nations,’”36-37.
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1702916153 [17] Schroeder,Matthew Calbraith Perry,187.
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1702916155 [18] Matthew Perry,The Japan Expedition,1852-1854:The Personal Journal of Commodore Matthew C. Perry,ed. Roger Pineau (Washington,DC:Smithsonian Institution Press,1968).更多从美国角度讨论佩里远征,请参阅Francis L. Hawks,Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan Performed in the Years 1852,1853,and 1854,under the Command of Commodore M.C. Perry,United States Navy,Vols. 1-3 (Washington,DC:Beverley Tucker,Senate Printer,1856)。
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1702916157 [19] 除了在长崎与荷兰人和中国人进行有限的贸易外,日本还通过琉球群岛与中国进行贸易,与朝鲜通过对马岛进行贸易,并通过松前岛与阿伊努人(Ainu)进行贸易。请参阅Robert I. Hellyer,Defining Engagement Japan and Local Contexts,1640-1868 (Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2009)。学者们为日本这一时期采取“闭关锁国”政策提供的理由是多种多样的。有些人认为,日本是担心西班牙人(1624年被驱逐出去)、葡萄牙人(1639年被驱逐出去)和荷兰人(1640年被驱逐出去)的外部干涉,包括在日本传播基督教。另一些人则推测这一政策更具有内向性,主要目的是加强日本政府的中央集权。请参阅James Murdoch with Ishoh Yamagata,A History of Japan Volume II:During the Century of Early Foreign Intercourse(1542-1651)(London:Kegan Paul,Trench,Trubner & Co.,1925),696-714;Michael S. Laver,The Sakoku Edicts and the Politics of Tokugawa Hegemony (Amherst,MA:Cambria Press,2011)。
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1702916159 [20] Miller,Treaties and Other International Acts,Vol. 7,1063. 值得注意的是,日本人曾允许通过长崎与荷兰人进行有限的贸易,但在佩里征服期间,日本并没有其他的对外贸易。
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1702916161 [21] John S. Sewall,The Logbook of the Captain’s Clerk:Adventures in the China Seas (Bangor,ME:C. H. Glas & Co. 1905),124-26.
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1702916163 [22] John S. Sewall,The Logbook of the Captain’s Clerk:Adventures in the China Seas (Bangor,ME:C. H. Glas & Co. 1905),124.
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1702916165 [23] John S. Sewall,The Logbook of the Captain’s Clerk:Adventures in the China Seas (Bangor,ME:C. H. Glas & Co. 1905),143.
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1702916167 [24] Perry,The Japan Expedition,3.
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1702916169 [25] Schroeder,Matthew Calbraith Perry,79.
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1702916171 [26] Sewall,The Logbook of the Captain’s Clerk,143-44.
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1702916173 [27] Perry,The Japan Expedition,91-92.
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1702916175 [28] Perry,The Japan Expedition,93-94. 佩里远征队与日本人之间的所有谈判都是通过中文和荷兰语翻译人员进行的,并且条约文本被翻译成了四种语言:日语、英语、中文和荷兰语。请参阅De-min Tao,“Negotiating Language in the Opening of Japan:Luo Sen’s Journal of Perry’s 1854 Expedition,” Japan Review 17 (2005):91-119。然而,正如我们将要看到的,这些翻译都不完美。
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1702916177 [29] Sewall,The Logbook of the Captain’s Clerk,145.
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1702916179 [30] Perry,The Japan Expedition,94. 佩里在其日志中反复提到在江户的“天皇”。佩里抵达日本时,日本皇室(以天皇为首)位于京都,在国家统治中并没有发挥重要作用。直到1868年明治维新后,天皇(当时是一个17岁的男孩)才成为位于改名为东京(江户)的日本政府的概念性首脑。参见Meirion and Susie Harries,Soldiers of the Sun:The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army,1868-1945 (London:Heinemann,1991),12。因此,很有可能佩里实际上是与日本国大君(幕府将军)而不是日本天皇在通信。事实上,后来美国和日本之间的条约清楚地显示是美国与大君签订的。请参阅Cyril H. Powles,“The Myth of the Two Emperors:A Study in Misunderstanding,Pacific Historical Review,” 37,no. 1 (February 1968);Hamish Ion,American Missionaries,Christian Oyatoi,and Japan,1859-73 (Vancouver and Toronto:University of British Columbia Press,2009),38-39。
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1702916181 [31] Perry,The Japan Expedition,95.
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1702916183 [32] Perry,The Japan Expedition,95.
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1702916185 [33] Perry,The Japan Expedition,95.
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1702916187 [34] Perry,The Japan Expedition,96.
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1702916189 [35] Hugo Grotius,The Freedom of the Seas,or The Right Which Belongs to the Dutch to Take Part in the East Indian Trade,trans. Ralph van Derman Magoffin (New York:Oxford University Press,1916),7.
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1702916191 [36] Hugo Grotius,The Freedom of the Seas,or The Right Which Belongs to the Dutch to Take Part in the East Indian Trade,trans. Ralph van Derman Magoffin (New York:Oxford University Press,1916),7.
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