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第七章
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[227]Mark H. Davis,Empathy: A Social Psychological Approach. Boulder,Colo.: Westview Press,1996,pp.3—4;Lauren Wispé,The Psychology of Sympathy. New York: Plenum Press,1991,pp.1—17;C. Daniel Batson,The Altruism Question: Towards a Social Psychological Answer. Hillsdale,N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,1991,pp.29—32;Martin L. Hoffman,Empathy Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. New York: Cambridge University Press,2000,pp.2—3,245—246.
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[228]对这项研究的总结,见Davis,1996,pp.116—118;Hoffman,2000,pp.206—209。
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[229]Davis,1996,p.112.
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[230]对“共情—利他假设”(empathy-altruism hypothesis)的辩护,见Batson,1991。
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[231]关于镜像神经元的研究总结,参见Marco Iacoboni,Mirroring People: The New Science of How We Connect with Others. New York: Farrar,Straus and Giroux,2008。
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[232]双模式心理研究的广泛讨论,参见Shelly Chaiken and Yaacov Trope,Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology. New York: Guilford,1999。
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[233]Hoffman,2000,pp.36—62.
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[234]Lawrence Kohlberg,The Psychology of Moral Development: The Nature and Validity of Moral Stages. Vol. 2 of Essays on Moral Development. San Francisco: Harper and Row,1984,p.176.
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[235]在我的教学中,我常常和学生玩这个游戏,不过后来我发现贝尔也在她的伦理学课上将这项任务布置为学生的期末考试试题。贝尔和她的学生,还有我都一致同意将休谟划分为第三阶段。(Annette C. Baier,Moral Prejudices: Essays on Ethics. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press,1995)
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[236]Kohlberg,1984,pp.174—175。科尔伯格承认亚当·斯密“为道德心理学的第三阶段因素提供了绝妙的阐述”,虽然他拒绝将亚当·斯密划归第三阶段。(Kohlberg,The Philosophy of Moral Development: Moral Stages and the Idea of Justice. Vol. 1 of Essays on Moral Development. San Francisco: Harper and Row,1981,p.150)
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[237]Carol Gilligan,In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press,1982/1993.
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[238]Baier,1995,chapter 4;Nel Noddings,Caring: A Feminist Approach to Ethics and Moral Education. Berkley: University of California Press,1984,p.79;Joan C. Tronto,Moral Boundaries: A Political Argument for an Ethic of Care. New York: Routledge,1993,p.20.
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[239]Gilligan,1982/1993,p.2.
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[240]苏珊·M.奥金总结了80年代在这个问题上的许多研究,她总结道:“关于女人和男人在思考道德问题的差异(至少目前)并不明显;到底这样所谓差异的原因是什么也不甚明朗。”(Susan Moller Okin,Justice Gender and the Family. New York: Basic Books,1989,p.15)其余的一些质疑吉利甘的经验性研究的总结,参见Tronto,1993,pp.82—85。
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[241]Hoffman,2001,pp.250—270.
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[242]对这些文本的总结和综合的建议,见Steven L. Blader and Tom R. Tyler,“Justice and Empathy: What Motivates People to Help Others?” In Michael Ross and Dales T. Miller,eds.,The Justice Motive in Everyday Life. New York: Cambridge University Press,2002,pp.226—250。
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[243]双过程认知模式的低级方式的第一个重要研究,见R.B. Zajonc,“Feeling and Thinking: Preferences Need No Inferences”,American Psychologist 35(1980),pp.151—175。关于无意识启发性研究经典论文集,参见Daniel Kahneman,Paul Slovic,Amos Tversky,eds.,Judgement Under Uncertainty: Heurestics and Biases. New York: Cambridge University Press,1982。更近一些的广泛研究,见Thomas Gilovich,Dale Griffin,Daniel Kahneman,eds.,Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. New York: Cambridge University Press,2002。后一卷中,尤其可参考Paul Slovic,Melissa Finucane,Ellen Peters,Donald G. MacGregor,“The Affect Heuristic”,pp.397—420。
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[244]Jonathan Haidt,“The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment”,Psychological Review 108,2001,pp.814—834。另外请参见Haidt and Fredrik Bjorklund,“Social Intuitionists Answer Six Questions about Moral Psychology”,in Sinnott-Armstrong,ed.,2008,pp.181—218。
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[245]参见Hauser,2006,另见Hauser,Young,Cushman,2008。同时,本书第一章的类似批判也可以对哈奇森和豪泽适用。
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[246]海特他们认识到在有意识的道德反思发生时,它可能不是“那种哲学家尊重的逻辑冰冷的思维”,而是“感情扮演了重要角色的权衡不同可能的过程”。(Haidt and Bjorklund,2008,p.201)他们虽然没有进一步在这方面做研究,但是他们提到安东尼奥·达马西奥的神经科学的研究,并将其作为感情在理性思维中重要角色的研究模式的范例。参见Antonio R. Damasio,Descartes’ Error: Emotion,Reason and the Human Brain. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons,1994。
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[247]Davis,1996,p.102.
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[248]George E. Marcus,W. Russell Neuman,Michael Mackuen,Affective Intelligence and Political Judgment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,2000。另外请参见George E. Marcus,The Sentimental Citizen: Emotion in Democratic Politics. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press,2002。对情感智能理论的重要应用,参见Ted Brader,Campaigning for Hearts and Minds: How Emotional Appeals in Political Ads Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,2006。对情感智能理论应用及其回应的广泛讨论论文集,参见W. Russell Neuman,George E. Marcus,Ann N. Crigler,Michael MacKuen,eds.,The Affect Effect: Dynamics of Emotion in Political Thinking and Behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,2007。
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[249]Marcus,et. al.,2000,p.129。另一个由休谟主义角度对马库斯的批评,参见Krause,2008,pp.55—56。
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[250]这种意见确实是普遍的,证据参见Brader,2006,pp.38—39。这种看法似乎是隐藏在“自由家长主义”背后的。也就是说,试图利用精英们理性有意识的思想来引导大众的自动,感情和启发式的决策过程。参见Richard H. Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein,Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health,Wealth and Happiness. Updated edition. New York: Penguin,2009;Sunstein,Laws of Fear: Beyond the Precautionary Principle. New York: Cambridge University Press,2005。
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