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1. For example, Gallup found that only 29 percent of employees in the US feel engaged by their work, and that “engagement rates trend downward slightly with employees’ higher levels of educational attainment.” Worldwide, they found only 13 percent felt engaged: Gallup (2013) State of the American Workplace. (Free download available from http://www.gallup.com/services/176735/state- global-workplace.aspx.) The Conference Board said “for the eighth straight year, les than half of US workers are satisfied with their jobs,” in: Cheng, B., Kan, M., Levnon, G., & Ray, R.L. (2014). Job Satisfaction Survey: The Conference Board
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科学理论基础
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1. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4), 371–378.
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2. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263–291.
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3. Keith Stanovich and Richard West, in particular, wrote an influential pape defining the two systems as System 1 and System 2, terminology that Daniel Kaneman also uses. Stanovich, K.E., & West, R.F. (2000). Individual difference i reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences,23, 645–726.
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4. A version of Daniel Kahneman’s Nobel Prize acceptance speech on December 8, 2002, was published as: Kahneman, D. (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. American Psychologist, 58(9), 697–720.
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5. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking Fast and Slow New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
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6. When a string of data — for example, a group of digits — is sufficiently close connected in our memories that recalling one part of it draws forth the rest, it can count as one “chunk.” So the reason that we might remember a seven- digit phone number is because we’ve turned it into two chunks of three and four digits, respectively — or even, with repetition, one single chunk. See: Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between longterm, short-term, and working memory? Progress in Brain Research 169, 323–338. See also: Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 87–185.
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7. Dux, P.E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C.L., & Marois, R. (2006). Isolation of a centra bottleneck of information processing with time-resolved FMRI. Neuron, 52(6),1109–1120. (See Chapter 4 for other multitasking references.)
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8. Baumeister, R., & Tierney, J. (2011). Willpower: Rediscovering the Greatest Human Strength. New York: Penguin.
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9. Shiv, B., & Fedorikhin, A. (1999). Heart and mind in conflict: The interplay affect and cognition in consumer decision making.Journal of Consumer Research,26, 278–292.
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10. Treisman, A., & Geffen, G. (1967). Selective attention: Perception or response Quarterly Journal ofExperimental Psychology, 19(1), 1–17.
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11. Simons and Chabris write entertainingly about this and other selective attention research in their book: Chabris, C.F., & Simons, D.J. (2010). The Invisible Grilla: And Other Ways Our Intuitions Deceive Us. New York: Crown. The origina academic article is: Simons, D.J., & Chabris, C.F. (1999). Gorillas in our midst: Sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events. Perception, 28(9), 1059–1074.You’ll see that those counting black shirts were more likely to see the gorilla, presumably because the gorilla was also black — so their brains treated the gorilla as slightly more “relevant” than those counting white shirts.
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12. If you haven’t seen the video, I’ve now blown the surprise. Sorry about that. But if you’re still keen to watch it, here it is: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo. You can also try watching this excellent video made by psychologist Richard Wiseman, which I use with my clients now that the gorilla(sorry, I mean basketball) video is so widely known: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v3iPrBrGSJM.
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13. LeDoux, J. (2012). Rethinking the emotional brain. Neuron, 73(4), 653–676.
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14. Adrenaline is sometimes known as epinephrine, and noradrenaline is sometimes called norepinephrine.
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15. The amygdala plays a complex role in directing the brain’s attention towar anything that’s emotionally ambiguous, whether positive or negative. Research has focused especially on the central role of the amygdala in our response to potential threats. For example, this study found that people’s amygdalas respond when exposed to a frightened face for only thirty milliseconds, too short a period to consciously notice: Whalen, P.J., et al. (1998). Masked presentations of emotional facial expressions modulate amygdala activity without explicit knowledge. Journal ofNeuroscience, 18(1), 411–418. This article found that people’s amygdalas subcosciously responded to angry expressions in photos even when they were being asked to focus on buildings in the same photos: Anderson, A.K., Christoff, K.,Panitz, D.,De Rosa, E., & Gabrieli, J.D. (2003). Neural correlates of the automatic processing of threat facial signals. Journal of Neuroscience, 23(13), 5627–5633. In this study,researchers found that damage to the amygdala meant that people weren’t able to recognize fearful expressions on others’ faces: Adolphs, R., et al. (1995). Fear and the human amygdala. Journal ofNeuroscience, 15(9), 5879–5891.
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16. Arnsten, A. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 410–422. For a less academic overview of the basic principle, this is a good read: Arnsten, A. (1998). The biology of being frazzled.Science, 280 (5370), 1711–1712.
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17. Andreas Eder and colleagues review “discover and defend” behavioral patterns in the modern world, in: Eder, A.B., Elliot, A.J., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2013). Approach and avoidance motivation: Issues and advances. Emotion Review, 5, 227–229.
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18. For example, the work that Mark Beeman has done with colleagues at Northwestern, referenced in: Subramaniam, K., et al. (2009). A brain mechanism for facilitation of insight by positive affect.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(3),415–432. See also Alice Isen’s comprehensive review: Isen, A. (2000). Positive affect and decision-making. In M. Lewis & J. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), The Handboo ofEmotions, 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press.
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19. Deci, E.L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R.M. (1999). A meta- analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation.Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627–668.
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20. Dunbar, R.I.M. (2003). The social brain: Mind, language, and society in evoltionary perspective. Annual Review ofAnthropology, 32(1), 163–181.
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21. See Matt Lieberman’s excellent book on our social brains for an overview of this research: Lieberman, M. (2013). Social. New York: Crown.
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22. Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2000). Self- determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78.
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