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4.Montgomery, Practical Detail.
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5.Zevin, “Growth of Cotton Textile Production.”
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6.This is not true of all technologies.For example, penicillin and small molecule pharmaceuticals often deliver most of their benefit soon after the initial commercialization.Delayed benefits are a feature of technologies where sequential innovation is important, as discussed in Chapter 3.
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7.Rosenberg, “Technological Interdependence”; Hollander, Sources of Increased Efficiency; Nuvolari, “Collective Invention.”
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8.This quip is from Gavin Wright, “Foundations,” paraphrasing the line in the 1954 film version of The Caine Mutiny: “The first thing you’ve got to learn about this ship is that she was designed by geniuses to be run by idiots.”
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9.Mokyr, Gifts of Athena.
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10.Mokyr, Enlightened Economy; Landes, Unbound Prometheus; Allen, British Industrial Revolution.
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11.Mokyr, Enlightened Economy, p.110.
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12.Meisenzahl and Mokyr, “Rate and Direction.”
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13.Wadsworth and Mann, Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire.
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14.MacLeod, Inventing the Industrial Revolution, pp..202–204.
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15.MacLeod, “James Watt.”
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16.Von Tunzfilmann, Steam Power.
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17.To cite two instances, the Smithsonian Institution celebrates heroic inventors at the Lemelson Hall of Invention, commemorating the leading patent troll of the twentieth century who donated the funding; the National Inventors Hall of Fame is hosted by the U.S.Patent and Trademark O.ce and only includes inventors who secured patents, excluding, for example, Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web.
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18.Cringely, “Steve Jobs.”
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19.Lyman, “Transaction of the Rhode Island Society.”
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20.Clark, “Why Isn’t the Whole World Developed?”
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21.Thus to the extent that theory contemplates technology implementation, much of it only appears to consider investment in R&D and not the development of worker skills and knowledge.In economics, this problem is framed as one of cumulative innovation, as in Scotchmer, “Standing on the Shoulders.” In legal scholarship, the problem is framed as one of commercialization.See Kieff, “Property Rights and Property Rules”; Sichelman, “Commercializing Patents”; and Abramowicz and Duffy, “Intellectual Property for Market Experimentation.” But again, the question, as framed, is only about the investments that firms need to make in order to bring inventions to market, not about the broader development of skills and knowledge.
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22.This is a very old intuition about patents, expressed in a formal model by Kenneth Arrow, “Economic Welfare.”
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23.Other justifications for patents include the arguments that they facilitate trade and that they promote disclosure of knowledge.Economic analysis of patents has focused largely on R&D incentives.See, for example, the innovation theory textbook by Scotchmer, Innovation and Incentives.Notably, this text does not discuss implementation at all.
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24.Inmany cases, theoretical economists simply ignore the difference between ideas and knowledge.In other cases, they recognize a potential difference but dismiss it.For example, Scotchmer’s text mentions Mokyr’s distinction between propositional and technological knowledge, but declares that this difference is not relevant to the economic analysis of innovation (Scotchmer, Innovation and Incentives, p.3, fn.2).
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25.Inhuman capital theory, workers invest optimally in their training when their skills are “general human capital.” In order to be general, technology-specific skills must be widely accepted, requiring standardization.Without a widely accepted standard, the skills might be specific to a particular firm or small group of firms.A standard theoretical result is that worker investments in their own skills may be less than optimal when those skills are firm specific (see Acemoglu and Autor, “Lectures,” chapter 9).If firms could coordinate on a widely accepted standard, labor markets would provide stronger incentives to workers to invest in training.However, firms often fail to coordinate on widely accepted standards for decades (see Chapter.4).This coordination problem can arise because of network externalities in the provision of training or in job search.
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26.Levinet al., “Appropriating the Returns”; Cohen et al., “Protecting Their Intellectual Assets”; Arundel and Kabla, “What Percentage of Innovations Are Patented?”
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第二章 非技能工作中的技能
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1.Sokolo., “Was the Transition…?”; Bessen, “Was Mechanization De-Skilling?”; Mohanty, “Experimentation in Textile Technology.” For example, studying Rhode Island weaving workshops during the late eighteenth century, Mohanty reports that “To make fabrics for early cloth manufacturers, weavers needed only rudimentary knowledge of their craft…the level of skill required of the workshop weavers was no more than a craftsman might acquire during the first year of an apprenticeship” (pp..9–10).
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