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1704380199 2.The following industries account for 58 percent of establishments with over 100 employees in the 1850 Census sample (Atack and Bateman, “U.S.Historical Statistics”): textiles, apparel, footwear, household furniture, meat, and dairy products.These goods had been produced previously largely within households (see Tryon, Household Manufactures).

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1704380201 3.The amount of cloth woven in households declined from 8.95 yards per person per year in 1825 to 0.27 yards per person per year in 1850 (Tryon, Household Manufactures, p.306).Estimates of weavers in workshops is based on calculations from the IPUMS Census samples for 1850 and 1880 (Ruggles et al., Integrated Public Use Microdata Series).Scranton, Proprietary Capitalism, documents the vitality of workshop production into the latter nineteenth century.

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1704380203 4.Dickens, “General Appearance.”

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1704380205 5.Morris, “Art, Wealth, and Riches.”

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1704380207 6.Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital; Marglin, “What Do Bosses Do?”

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1704380209 7.Weaving apprenticeships had lasted only three years, but by the end of the eighteenth century, many artisans did not go through a formal apprenticeship; Mohanty, “Experimentation in Textile Technology.”

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1704380211 8.Here I am studying the learning curves of individual workers, not of the mill as a whole.Some of the early research on Lowell looked at learning curves for the mills or even for the industry as a whole (see Davis and Stettler, “New England Textile Industry,” and David, Technical Choice).Lazonick and Brush, in “Horndal Effect,” pointed out that a variety of factors might influence productivity over the long time frames studied, such as the organization of the workforce and the level of effort extracted.They attempted to show the effects of these factors.Nevertheless, Lazonick and Brush’s data do show individual learning curves.An individual in 1850 might begin learning at a different level than an individual in 1830 because of differences affecting the entire mill, but both individuals appear to improve performance dramatically within a year or two as the result of individual learning.

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1704380213 9.F.G.A., “Susan Miller.”

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1704380215 10.For example, the cohorts shown in Figure.2.1 earned $8.54 on average during their first month on the job; female schoolteachers in Massachusetts earned $11.28 per month around this time.Most of the weavers could have taught school, and many did.See Bessen, “Technology and Learning,” for more details.

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1704380217 11.Bessen, “Technology and Learning.”

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1704380219 12.These estimates were obtained two different ways, using data on alternative wages and on skill premiums earned.See Bessen, “Technology and Learning,” for details.

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1704380221 13.Shlakman, Economic History, p.147.

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1704380223 14.Barnett, “Introduction of the Linotype”; Barnett, “Chapters”; Brown and Philips, “Craft Labor and Mechanization”; Chin, Juhn, and Thompson, “Technical Change”; Gordon, “Who Turned the Mechanical Ideal?”; Gray, “Taking Technology to Task”; Nelson, “Mass Production.”

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1704380225 15.Sokolo., “Was the Transition…?”

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1704380227 16.Bresnahan and Greenstein, “Technical Progress and Co-invention.”

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1704380229 17.Black and Lynch, “How to Compete”; Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson, and Hitt, “Information Technology”; Lynch, “Adoption and Diffusion.”

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1704380231 18.Brynjolfsson and Hitt, “Beyond Computation,” p.27.

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1704380233 19.Brynjolfsson, Hitt, and Yang, “Intangible Assets.”

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1704380235 20.Autor, Levy, and Murnane, “Skill Content.”

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1704380237 21.Gawande, Complications, p..19.

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1704380239 22.Darby and Zucker “Change or Die”; Darby, Zucker, and Welch, “Going Public”; Zucker, Darby, and Armstrong, “Geographically Localized Knowledge”; Zucker, Darby, and Armstrong, “Commercializing Knowledge”; Zucker, Darby, and Brewer, “Intellectual Human Capital”; Jensen and Thursby, “Proofs and Prototypes.”

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1704380241 23.Bahk and Gort, “Decomposing Learning”; Jovanovic and Nyarko, “Bayesian Learning”; Argote and Epple, “Learning Curves.”

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1704380243 24.Boston Consulting Group, Perspectives on Experience; Thompson, “Learning by Doing.”

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1704380245 25.Bessen,“Productivity Adjustments.” This study of thousands of plants also shows that ramp-up is associated with increases in “multifactor productivity.” Multifactor productivity is a measure that attempts to account for changes in capital per worker and materials per worker.

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1704380247 26.Alternatively, employers might learn which workers are more productive and let the others go.In this case employers are learning, and there is another sort of human capital investment.

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