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12.These estimates were obtained two different ways, using data on alternative wages and on skill premiums earned.See Bessen, “Technology and Learning,” for details.
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13.Shlakman, Economic History, p.147.
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14.Barnett, “Introduction of the Linotype”; Barnett, “Chapters”; Brown and Philips, “Craft Labor and Mechanization”; Chin, Juhn, and Thompson, “Technical Change”; Gordon, “Who Turned the Mechanical Ideal?”; Gray, “Taking Technology to Task”; Nelson, “Mass Production.”
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15.Sokolo., “Was the Transition…?”
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16.Bresnahan and Greenstein, “Technical Progress and Co-invention.”
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17.Black and Lynch, “How to Compete”; Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson, and Hitt, “Information Technology”; Lynch, “Adoption and Diffusion.”
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18.Brynjolfsson and Hitt, “Beyond Computation,” p.27.
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19.Brynjolfsson, Hitt, and Yang, “Intangible Assets.”
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20.Autor, Levy, and Murnane, “Skill Content.”
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21.Gawande, Complications, p..19.
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22.Darby and Zucker “Change or Die”; Darby, Zucker, and Welch, “Going Public”; Zucker, Darby, and Armstrong, “Geographically Localized Knowledge”; Zucker, Darby, and Armstrong, “Commercializing Knowledge”; Zucker, Darby, and Brewer, “Intellectual Human Capital”; Jensen and Thursby, “Proofs and Prototypes.”
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23.Bahk and Gort, “Decomposing Learning”; Jovanovic and Nyarko, “Bayesian Learning”; Argote and Epple, “Learning Curves.”
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24.Boston Consulting Group, Perspectives on Experience; Thompson, “Learning by Doing.”
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25.Bessen,“Productivity Adjustments.” This study of thousands of plants also shows that ramp-up is associated with increases in “multifactor productivity.” Multifactor productivity is a measure that attempts to account for changes in capital per worker and materials per worker.
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26.Alternatively, employers might learn which workers are more productive and let the others go.In this case employers are learning, and there is another sort of human capital investment.
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27.Rosenzweig, “Why Are There Returns to Schooling?”
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28.Foster and Rosenzweig, “Microeconomics of Technology Adoption.”
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29.Abowd, Lengfirmann, and McKinney, “Measurement of Human Capital.”
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30.Much of the remaining variation in wages is explained by firm-specific characteristics and unobserved factors.
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31.Lane, Ships for Victory, p.202.
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32.Thompson, “How Much?”
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第三章 缓慢革命
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1.Du Maurier, “Edison’s Telephonoscope.”
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2.Kitch,“Nature and Function of the Patent System,” using data from Jewkes, Sawers, and Stillerman, Sources of Invention.
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3.Gort and Klepper, “Time Paths.”
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