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4.Auerswald et al., “Production Recipes Approach.”
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5.Rosenberg and Steinmueller, “Engineering Knowledge.”
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6.Bessen, “More Machines.”
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7.These times are rough estimates, but nevertheless illustrative of the remainder principle.See Bessen, “More Machines,” for actual times.
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8.If the development of the improvement or its implementation involved an indivisible fixed cost, then these costs would act as a threshold and improvements would not be made until they were sufficiently pro.table to cover the fixed costs.If, on the other hand, the costs were not necessarily a large lump sum and/or there was substantial heterogeneity in these costs, then the effect of greater profitability on inventive activity would be more continuous.In either case, the remainder principle explains why the process is sequential over a period of time.
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9.Draper, “Continued Development.”
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10.David Landes, in The Unbound Prometheus, described this pattern during the Industrial Revolution as one of “challenge and response” after Toynbee.
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11.Baldwin and Clark, Design Rules.
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12.Weavers were paid mainly on piece rates, so they would benefit directly from learning this skill.A weaver on an hourly rate would only benefit to the extent that her employer raised her pay for acquiring such skills.
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13.Marx, Capital, vol.1, ch.15.
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14.Autor, Levy, and Murnane, “Skill Content.”
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15.This is why new inventions so often come from skilled workers and managers: there is “user innovation.” See Eric von Hippel, Sources of Innovation.
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16.Thomson, “Learning by Selling.”
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17.This topic is explored in Rosenberg, “Technological Interdependence.” The Corliss steam engine not only provided cheaper power, it also regulated the power supply in response to demand changes, which improved the ability to manufacture finer textiles.See Rosenberg and Trajtenberg, “General Purpose Technology.”
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18.This output is based on the amount of cotton processed per textile worker, not just weavers.
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19.Moore’s Law predicts that the number of transistors on a semiconductor chip (and, roughly, the processor speed) doubles about every two years.Both the exponential growth in textiles and in semiconductors can be viewed as the outcome of a process of coordination between a base technology and complementary knowledge/products.
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20.David, “The Dynamo and the Computer.”
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21.Black and Lynch, “How to Compete”; Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson, and Hitt, “Information Technology”; Lynch, “Adoption and Diffusion.”
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22.See Chapter 11, and Bessen and Maskin, “Sequential Innovation.”
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第四章 标准知识
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1.Students only needed to determine the atomic number of an element to determine its place in the periodic table, and from this they could infer chemical properties.For example, the rightmost column contains noble gases that are inert.The next to last column contains halogens that are highly reactive; they will combine with hydrogen to firm acids.
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2.For example, Justus von Liebig’s laboratory in Giessen had a dozen students early on.See Haber, Chemical Industry, p.71.
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3.Bensaude-Vincent, History of Chemistry.
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4.Moser, “Do Patents Weaken the Localization of Innovations?”
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5.Since the 1980s, economists have studied various aspects of technical standards, focusing mainly on compatibility standards, or those standards that allow different components of a system to work together, such as hardware and software.Compatibility standards give rise to interesting problems such as competition between standards and problems of “lock-in” to a given standard.But technical standards are only one way that technical knowledge is standardized, and these compatibility issues are only part of the role that technical standards play.For a review of this literature, see David and Greenstein, “Economics of Compatibility Standards,” and Blind, Economics of Standards.
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