1704380298

1704380299 19.Moore’s Law predicts that the number of transistors on a semiconductor chip (and, roughly, the processor speed) doubles about every two years.Both the exponential growth in textiles and in semiconductors can be viewed as the outcome of a process of coordination between a base technology and complementary knowledge/products.

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1704380301 20.David, “The Dynamo and the Computer.”

1704380302

1704380303 21.Black and Lynch, “How to Compete”; Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson, and Hitt, “Information Technology”; Lynch, “Adoption and Diffusion.”

1704380304

1704380305 22.See Chapter 11, and Bessen and Maskin, “Sequential Innovation.”

1704380306

1704380307 第四章　标准知识

1704380308

1704380309 1.Students only needed to determine the atomic number of an element to determine its place in the periodic table, and from this they could infer chemical properties.For example, the rightmost column contains noble gases that are inert.The next to last column contains halogens that are highly reactive; they will combine with hydrogen to firm acids.

1704380310

1704380311 2.For example, Justus von Liebig’s laboratory in Giessen had a dozen students early on.See Haber, Chemical Industry, p.71.

1704380312

1704380313 3.Bensaude-Vincent, History of Chemistry.

1704380314

1704380315 4.Moser, “Do Patents Weaken the Localization of Innovations?”

1704380316

1704380317 5.Since the 1980s, economists have studied various aspects of technical standards, focusing mainly on compatibility standards, or those standards that allow different components of a system to work together, such as hardware and software.Compatibility standards give rise to interesting problems such as competition between standards and problems of “lock-in” to a given standard.But technical standards are only one way that technical knowledge is standardized, and these compatibility issues are only part of the role that technical standards play.For a review of this literature, see David and Greenstein, “Economics of Compatibility Standards,” and Blind, Economics of Standards.

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1704380319 6.Dominique Foray defines codification as “expressed in a particular language and recorded on a particular medium” (Foray, Economics of Knowledge,p.74).Foray reviews the literature on codification.Language puts knowledge in a standardized firm that can be more readily understood by someone who reads that language.But standardized knowledge is not necessarily codified; a tacit skill can be limited to apply to a certain range of conditions, thus becoming standardized to a degree.For instance, surgeons are certified in certain standard techniques that are tacit knowledge learned through experience.Codification is often most beneficial when it is combined with other sorts of standardization.Thus, although chemical experiments were all documented (codified) before Mendeleev, the experimental knowledge became much easier to learn when essential findings were simplified in the firm of the periodic table.Such simplification can make the knowledge easier to acquire.Although it’s not necessary, codification facilitates the ease with which knowledge can be standardized, and it magnifies the ease of communicating standardized knowledge.

1704380320

1704380321 7.The notion of dominant designs is developed in Utterback and Abernathy, “Dynamic Model”; Utterback, Mastering the Dynamics; and Suárez and Utterback, “Dominant Designs.” On QWERTY, see David, “Clio.”

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1704380323 8.Nelson and Winter, Evolutionary Theory.

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1704380325 9.See a review of this literature in Besen and Farrell, “Choosing How to Compete.”

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1704380327 10.Raymond Vernon first developed evidence that firms do not export a technology until it has matured and is relatively standardized.See Vernon, “International Investment.” A significant body of subsequent research finds supporting evidence.The cost of transferring technologies overseas decreases with their age.David Teece, “Technology Transfer,” documents that the cost of transferring mechanical technologies overseas by multinational firms decreases substantially with the age of the technology.For chemical and petroleum refining plants, he finds that the age relationship is weaker, but the cost decreases with the novelty of the technology.Also, early-stage industries and patenting activity with new technologies tend to be geographically localized.Conversely, older industries and technologies tend to be more geographically dispersed.Using patent citations as a proxy for knowledge spill overs, Ja.e, Trajtenberg, and Henderson, “Geographic Localization,” find that the localization of knowledge decreases with the age of a technology.Audretsch and Feldman, “R&D Spillovers,” find that early-stage industries tend to be more highly localized, and Desmet and Rossi-Hansberg, “Spatial Growth,” find that older manufacturing technologies are less localized.And Petra Moser, “Do Patents Weaken…?,” finds greater geographical dispersion of patenting after the periodic table.Note, however, that these differences are a matter of the degree of standardization.AnnaLee Saxenian, New Argonauts, finds that the export of semiconductor manufacturing processes to Taiwan also involved the export of experienced engineers who brought with them much knowledge that was not standardized.

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1704380329 11.John Marko., “Battles Loom for Control of TV’s Portal to Cable,” New York Times, April 3, 1993.

1704380330

1704380331 12.Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma.

1704380332

1704380333 13.Edmund L.Andrews, “Technology; Time Warner’s Ordinary People Plug Interactive TV,” New York Times, December 18, 1994.

1704380334

1704380335 14.“A Talk with Miss Margaret Kelly, Director of the U.S.Mint,” New York Times, August 6, 1911.

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1704380337 15.Almost all female stenographers were also typists.See Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper.

1704380338

1704380339 16.Ker, G.K.Chesterton, p.392.

1704380340

1704380341 17.Costa, “From Mill Town to Board Room.”

1704380342

1704380343 18.Rockwell, Shorthand Instruction and Practice.

1704380344

1704380345 19.National Stenographer, “The New Hammond,” p..319.

1704380346

1704380347 20.David, “Clio.”

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