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27.Rosenzweig, “Why Are There Returns to Schooling?”
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28.Foster and Rosenzweig, “Microeconomics of Technology Adoption.”
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29.Abowd, Lengfirmann, and McKinney, “Measurement of Human Capital.”
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30.Much of the remaining variation in wages is explained by firm-specific characteristics and unobserved factors.
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31.Lane, Ships for Victory, p.202.
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32.Thompson, “How Much?”
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第三章 缓慢革命
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1.Du Maurier, “Edison’s Telephonoscope.”
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2.Kitch,“Nature and Function of the Patent System,” using data from Jewkes, Sawers, and Stillerman, Sources of Invention.
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3.Gort and Klepper, “Time Paths.”
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4.Auerswald et al., “Production Recipes Approach.”
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5.Rosenberg and Steinmueller, “Engineering Knowledge.”
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6.Bessen, “More Machines.”
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7.These times are rough estimates, but nevertheless illustrative of the remainder principle.See Bessen, “More Machines,” for actual times.
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8.If the development of the improvement or its implementation involved an indivisible fixed cost, then these costs would act as a threshold and improvements would not be made until they were sufficiently pro.table to cover the fixed costs.If, on the other hand, the costs were not necessarily a large lump sum and/or there was substantial heterogeneity in these costs, then the effect of greater profitability on inventive activity would be more continuous.In either case, the remainder principle explains why the process is sequential over a period of time.
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9.Draper, “Continued Development.”
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10.David Landes, in The Unbound Prometheus, described this pattern during the Industrial Revolution as one of “challenge and response” after Toynbee.
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11.Baldwin and Clark, Design Rules.
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12.Weavers were paid mainly on piece rates, so they would benefit directly from learning this skill.A weaver on an hourly rate would only benefit to the extent that her employer raised her pay for acquiring such skills.
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13.Marx, Capital, vol.1, ch.15.
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14.Autor, Levy, and Murnane, “Skill Content.”
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15.This is why new inventions so often come from skilled workers and managers: there is “user innovation.” See Eric von Hippel, Sources of Innovation.
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16.Thomson, “Learning by Selling.”
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17.This topic is explored in Rosenberg, “Technological Interdependence.” The Corliss steam engine not only provided cheaper power, it also regulated the power supply in response to demand changes, which improved the ability to manufacture finer textiles.See Rosenberg and Trajtenberg, “General Purpose Technology.”
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18.This output is based on the amount of cotton processed per textile worker, not just weavers.
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