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22.Abowd, Lengfirmann, and McKinney, “Measurement of Human Capital.”
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23.Lewis, Unionism and Relative Wages; Lewis, Union Relative Wage Effects.For a more recent update, see Blanch flower and Bryson, “Union Wage Premium.”
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24.Jardini, “From Iron to Steel”; Nuwer, “From Batch to Flow.”
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25.Jardini, “From Iron to Steel,” pp..293–294; Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor,pp.30–31.Jardini notes that Bessemer workers earned more than wrought-iron workers despite both being represented by the same union.Montgomery notes that steel unions did not have consistent successes.By 1885, all but three of fifteen steel rolling mills required nonunion oaths by their workers.And as Jardini notes, the unions of Carnegie Steel faced disastrous setbacks at the Duquesne Works in 1890 and the Homestead Works in 1892.Bessemer workers earned relatively high wages nevertheless.
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26.Becker, Human Capital.
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第六章 织工们是怎样提高待遇的？
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1.Robinson, Loom and Spindle.
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2.Dublin, Women at Work, pp.99–100.
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3.Dublin (Women at Work, p..101) finds some evidence that the strike brought benefits to some workers.
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4.Allen, “Engels’ Pause.”
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5.Engels, Condition of the Working Class, pp..25–26.
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6.The formal notion in economics that aggregate income inequality first rises with economic development and then falls is called the “Kuznets Curve” and is attributed to Simon Kuznets (“Economic Growth and Income Inequality”).Economists have measured these trends (see, for example, Williamson, Did British Capitalism Breed Inequality?).Much of this analysis has been at a macro level, however, and therefore involves broader changes than those I analyze here, including the shifting composition of occupations and changing tax structures.See,for example, Acemoglu and Robinson, “Why Did the West Extend the Franchise?”
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7.Wages during the Civil War might not have been representative of peacetime wages.
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8.Layer, Earnings of Cotton Mill Operatives.
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9.The unskilled male wage only grew 6 percent from 1830 to 1900, after adjusting for inflation (David and Solar, “Bicentenary Contribution”).
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10.Spinners, in fact, also had learning curves and hence some significant skills.However, their learning curves were lower, implying lower skill levels.See Leunig, “Piece Rates and Learning.”
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11.Bessen, “Technology and Learning.”
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12.Dublin, Women at Work, p..10.
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13.In 1834, after the first strike, the strikers were replaced by trainees who were soon as productive as the women they replaced.Given that the mills had excess inventory, the production lost from the walkout was not especially costly.In 1836, the strike was more costly because the mills were understaffed before the strike.
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14.We can infer that a newly hired weaver has experience if, in the payroll records, we observe that she was put directly on piece rate pay without any training period.Inexperienced weavers were put on day wages for two or three weeks while training before earning piece rate wages.These figures come from the Lawrence Company in Lowell.
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15.The market may also have been small because the mills of Lowell tried to avoid hiring from each other.This group of mills had overlapping ownership and set wages jointly (Dublin, Women at Work, p.10) and might have avoided hiring away experienced weavers from one another.However, there were plenty of other mills operating in New England that had different ownership and competed for workers (McGouldrick, New England Textiles, p.37).The lack of standardization appears to have limited competition much more than the control over the market exerted by the Lowell mills.
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16.Gibb, Saco-Lowell Shops.
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17.Rosen, “Economics of Superstars.” Note, however, that the superstar model applies when there is a great economy of scale, such as for an entertainer whose work is replicated digitally.This is something that does not occur in most occupations, however.
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18.There were a number of mill companies in Lowell, but because they had overlapping ownership and management, they set wages jointly and avoided “poaching” employees from one another.They acted effectively more like a single company so that weavers would have to relocate to another town to find comparable work.
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19.Ware,Early New England Cotton Manufacture; and Kulik, Parks, and Penn, New England Mill Village.
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