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17.U.S.federal agencies have long been encouraged to support voluntary industry consensus standards rather than unique government standards.This policy was set out by the O.ce of Management and Budget in 1980 (Circular A-119), but the policy preference had been in place long before then.See McKieff, “Circular Reasoning.”
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18.Eaglen and Pollak, “U.S.Military Technological Supremacy.”
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19.Mowery, “Public Procurement.”
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20.Stowsky, “Secrets to Shield or Share?”
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21.These innovations include encryption,.at panel displays, and “smart highways.”
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22.See American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), “Defense and Nondefense R&D, 1953–2014,” http://www.aaas.org/page/guiderd.data-lhistorica-%E2%80%93-data-funding
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23.Stowsky, “Secrets to Shield or Share?,” p.258.
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24.Alexander, “Adaptation to Change.”
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25.Of course, for these reasons a higher level of security also meets the needs of influence peddlers.In addition, congressional frustration with the cozy relationship between the defense industry and military has sometimes led to short-sighted attempt store strict defense R&D only to projects that have direct short-term benefit to the military.See, for example, the Mansfield Amendment of 1969.Offered by Senator Mike Mansfield of Montana, it prohibited military funding of research that was not directly related to a specific military application; it became part of Public Law 91-121.
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26.Lazowska and Patterson, “Endless Frontier Postponed.”
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27.Pine,“OPEN to Wild Ideas”; Amy O’Leary, “Worries over Defense Department Money for ‘Hackerspaces,’ ” New York Times, October 5, 2012; DARPA, “Young Faculty Award,” http://www.darpa.mil/Opportunities/Universities/Young _Faculty.aspx.
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28.Simcoe and To.el, “Public Procurement.”
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29.See Longman,“Best Care Anywhere,” p.38, citing the New England Journal of Medicine, The Annals of Internal Medicine, and the National Committee for Quality Assurance.
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30.David Stires, “Technology Has Transformed the VA,” Fortune, May 11, 2006.
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31.Ezra Klein, “Veterans Aren’t the Only Ones Waiting for Health Care.” Vox, May 23, 2014, http://www.vox.com/2014/5/23/5745356/veterans-arent-the-only-ones-waiting-for-health-care.
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32.Institute of Medicine, To Err Is Human.
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33.For an example, see Atul Gawande, “The Hot Spotters,” The New Yorker, January 24, 2011.
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34.Hillestad et al., “Can Electronic Medical Record Systems Transform Healthcare?”
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35.Sidorov, “It Ain’t Necessarily So”; Milt Freudenheim, “The Ups and Downs of Electronic Medical Records,” New York Times, October 8, 2012.
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36.Dranove et al., “Trillion Dollar Conundrum.”
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37.Freudenheim, “The Ups and Downs of Electronic Medical Records.”
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第十一章 被遗忘的知识共享历史
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1.Bagnall, Textile Industries of the United States, pp..546–550.
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2.Chesbrough, Open Innovation.What Chesbrough calls open innovation does not necessarily involve free sharing of knowledge, but could involve knowledge exchange with compensation.
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3.Meyer, “Airplane as an Open Source Invention.”
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