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30.David Stires, “Technology Has Transformed the VA,” Fortune, May 11, 2006.
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31.Ezra Klein, “Veterans Aren’t the Only Ones Waiting for Health Care.” Vox, May 23, 2014, http://www.vox.com/2014/5/23/5745356/veterans-arent-the-only-ones-waiting-for-health-care.
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32.Institute of Medicine, To Err Is Human.
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33.For an example, see Atul Gawande, “The Hot Spotters,” The New Yorker, January 24, 2011.
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34.Hillestad et al., “Can Electronic Medical Record Systems Transform Healthcare?”
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35.Sidorov, “It Ain’t Necessarily So”; Milt Freudenheim, “The Ups and Downs of Electronic Medical Records,” New York Times, October 8, 2012.
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36.Dranove et al., “Trillion Dollar Conundrum.”
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37.Freudenheim, “The Ups and Downs of Electronic Medical Records.”
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第十一章 被遗忘的知识共享历史
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1.Bagnall, Textile Industries of the United States, pp..546–550.
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2.Chesbrough, Open Innovation.What Chesbrough calls open innovation does not necessarily involve free sharing of knowledge, but could involve knowledge exchange with compensation.
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3.Meyer, “Airplane as an Open Source Invention.”
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4.See an overview by Bessen and Nuvolari, “Knowledge Sharing.” Patents are, of course, documents themselves, and so their role is relatively easier for historians to access, possibly giving rise to a biased view of their relative importance.
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5.Allen, “Collective Invention.”
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6.Epstein, “Property Rights.”
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7.Allen, “Collective Invention”; Allen, British Industrial Revolution; Allen, “Industrial Revolution in Miniature”; Nuvolari, “Collective Invention during the British Industrial Revolution”; Nuvolari and Verspagen, “Lean’s Engine Reporter”; MacLeod, Inventing the Industrial Revolution, pp..104–105.
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8.Bessen and Nuvolari, “Di.using New Technology”; Mak and Walton, “Steamboats”; McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine; Temin, Iron and Steel; Meyer, “Episodes of Collective Invention”; Thomson, Structures of Change; Wallace, Rockdale.
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9.Allen,British Industrial Revolution, pp.68–74; Olmstead and Rhode, CreatingAbundance.
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10.VonHippel, “Cooperation between Rivals”; Schrader, “Informal Technology Transfer”; West, “Commercializing Open Science”; Meyer, “Episodes of Collective Invention”; Von Hippel, Democratic Innovation.
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11.Wallace, Rockdale.
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12.Fritz, Autobiography of John Fritz, p.160.
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13.Stephen Wozniak, “Home brew and How the Apple Came to Be,” http://www.atariarchives.org/deli/homebrew_and_how_the_apple.php.
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14.West, “Commercializing Open Science.”
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15.Scotchmer, Innovation and Incentives.
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16.Patents are not the only means of preventing imitation.Aside from the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, most firms use other means (Levin et al., “Appropriating the Returns”).By being first to market with an innovation, they earn pro.ts before rivals can enter.Other times they can gain an advantage through learning by doing: they can maintain a cost advantage relative to rivals with less experience.And big companies often earn pro.ts on complementary products.For example, computer companies once earned pro.ts on the hardware even though the software was copied.Although firms often use alternative means to limit imitation, copying is still seen as the central concern: if imitation hurts pro.ts, it will reduce innovation incentives.
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