1704380750
1704380751
5.Olmstead and Rhode, Creating Abundance; David and Wright, “Increasing Returns”; Thomson, “Government and Innovation.”
1704380752
1704380753
6.Gordon, “Who Turned the Mechanical Ideal into Mechanical Reality?”
1704380754
1704380755
7.Smith, “Army Ordnance”; Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production.
1704380756
1704380757
8.Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production.See also Thomson, Structures of Change.
1704380758
1704380759
9.Thomson, Structures of Change, pp..54–59.
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1704380761
10.Thomson, Structures of Change, p.57.
1704380762
1704380763
11.Thomson, “Government and Innovation.”
1704380764
1704380765
12.West, “Commercializing Open Science.” Andrew Viterbi, the inventor of the algorithm and one of the found ers of Qualcomm, has said that they did not patent the algorithm because “if we had patented, it probably would have slowed down its acceptance, because no one patented in those days.AT&T and IBM patented for commercial reasons, but we were a small government contractor.” (IEEE Global History Network, “Oral History: Andrew Viterbi,” http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Oral-History
:Andrew_Viterbi.)
1704380766
1704380767
13.Mowery and Simcoe, “Is the Internet a U.S.Invention?” The World Wide Web was invented by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in Switzerland.
1704380768
1704380769
14.The military also realized that a packet-switched network (the Internet is packet-switched) was resistant to nuclear attack.
1704380770
1704380771
15.Mowery and Simcoe, “Is the Internet a U.S.Invention?,” p..1371.
1704380772
1704380773
16.Mowery and Simcoe, “Is the Internet a U.S.Invention?,” p..1382.
1704380774
1704380775
17.U.S.federal agencies have long been encouraged to support voluntary industry consensus standards rather than unique government standards.This policy was set out by the O.ce of Management and Budget in 1980 (Circular A-119), but the policy preference had been in place long before then.See McKieff, “Circular Reasoning.”
1704380776
1704380777
18.Eaglen and Pollak, “U.S.Military Technological Supremacy.”
1704380778
1704380779
19.Mowery, “Public Procurement.”
1704380780
1704380781
20.Stowsky, “Secrets to Shield or Share?”
1704380782
1704380783
21.These innovations include encryption,.at panel displays, and “smart highways.”
1704380784
1704380785
22.See American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), “Defense and Nondefense R&D, 1953–2014,” http://www.aaas.org/page/guiderd.data-lhistorica-%E2%80%93-data-funding
1704380786
1704380787
23.Stowsky, “Secrets to Shield or Share?,” p.258.
1704380788
1704380789
24.Alexander, “Adaptation to Change.”
1704380790
1704380791
25.Of course, for these reasons a higher level of security also meets the needs of influence peddlers.In addition, congressional frustration with the cozy relationship between the defense industry and military has sometimes led to short-sighted attempt store strict defense R&D only to projects that have direct short-term benefit to the military.See, for example, the Mansfield Amendment of 1969.Offered by Senator Mike Mansfield of Montana, it prohibited military funding of research that was not directly related to a specific military application; it became part of Public Law 91-121.
1704380792
1704380793
26.Lazowska and Patterson, “Endless Frontier Postponed.”
1704380794
1704380795
27.Pine,“OPEN to Wild Ideas”; Amy O’Leary, “Worries over Defense Department Money for ‘Hackerspaces,’ ” New York Times, October 5, 2012; DARPA, “Young Faculty Award,” http://www.darpa.mil/Opportunities/Universities/Young _Faculty.aspx.
1704380796
1704380797
28.Simcoe and To.el, “Public Procurement.”
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1704380799
29.See Longman,“Best Care Anywhere,” p.38, citing the New England Journal of Medicine, The Annals of Internal Medicine, and the National Committee for Quality Assurance.
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