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[11]Baumol and Bowen,“On the Performing Arts.”
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[12]Ernst Engel,“Die Productions und Consumtionsverhältnisse des Königreichs Sachsen,”Zeitschrift des Statistischen Büreaus des Königlich-Sächsischen Ministeriums des Innern8(1857):1 -54.
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[13]需求侧在分析结构变革中的重要性,参见Diego A. Comin, Danial Lashkari,and Martí Mestieri,“Structural Change with Long-Run Income and Price Effects”(NBER Working Paper No. 21595, National Bureau of Economic Research,Cambridge, MA, September 2015, rev. April 2020).
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[14]关于市场规模对创新的影响,参见Daron Acemoglu and Joshua Linn,“Market Size in Innovation: Theory and Evidence from the Pharmaceutical Industry,”QuarterlyJournalofEconomics119, no. 3(2004)
:1049 -1090; and Philippe Aghion, Antonin Bergeaud, Matthieu Lequien, and Marc J. Melitz,“The Heterogeneous Impact of Market Size on Innovation: Evidence from French Firm-Level Exports” (NBER Working Paper No. 24600, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge,MA, May 2018, rev. October 2019).创新和技术革新可以定向的概念最早参见如下研究: Philippe Aghion and Peter Howitt,“Research and Development in the Growth Process,”JournalofEconomicGrowth1, no. 1(1996)
:49 -93.之后又得到若干发展: Daron Acemoglu及其合作者,尤其是Daron Acemoglu,“Why Do New Technologies Complement Skills? Directed Technical Change and Wage Inequality,”QuarterlyJournalofEconomics113, no. 4(1998)
:1055 -1089; Daron Acemoglu,“Directed Technical Change,”ReviewofEconomicStudies69, no. 4(2002)
:781 -809; Daron Acemoglu,“Equilibrium Bias of Technology,”Econometrica75, no. 5(2007)
:1371 -1409.还可参见Daron Acemoglu and Pascual Restrepo,“The Race between Man and Machine: Implications of Technology for Growth, Factor Shares, and Employment,”AmericanEconomicReview108, no. 6(2018)
:1488 -1542.
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[15]Philippe Aghion and Peter Howitt,TheEconomicsofGrowth(Cambridge, MA
:MIT Press, 2008).
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[16]Acemoglu,“Why Do New Technologies Complement Skills?”
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[17]See, for example, David Popp,“Induced Innovation and Energy Prices,”AmericanEconomicReview92, no. 1(2002)
:160 -180; Philippe Aghion, Antoine Dechezleprêtre, David Hémous, Ralf Martin, and John Van Reenen,“Carbon Taxes, Path Dependency, and Directed Technical Change: Evidence from the Auto Industry,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy124, no. 1(2016)
:1 -51.
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[18]本节内容基于如下研究: Timo Boppart and Franziska J. Weiss,“Non-Homothetic Preferences and Industry Directed Technical Change,” unpublished manuscript,June 2013; Acemoglu and Restrepo,“The Race between Man and Machine.”
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[19]Philippe Aghion, Benjamin F. Jones, and Charles I. Jones,“Artificial Intelligence and Economic Growth,” inThe Economics of Artificial Intelligence:An Agenda,ed. Ajay Agrawal, Joshua Gans, and Avi Goldfarb(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019).
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[20]Joseph Stiglitz,“From Resource Curse to Blessing,”ProjectSyndicate, August 6,2012.
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[21]2010年美元价值。
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[22]我们这里采用阿西莫格鲁和罗宾逊的术语,参见Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson,Why Nations Fail
:The Origins of Power,Prosperity and Poverty(New York: Crown, 2012),529.他们指出,包容性制度(inclusive institutions)鼓励创业和创新,而攫取性制度(extractive institutions)打击创新和私人企业,对产权保护不力,教育体系缺乏效率。
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[23]Friedrich List,Das nationale System der politischen Ökonomie(Stuttgart: Cotta,1841).
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[24]需要注意,李斯特主张的是暂时而非永久性的保护主义。一旦本国企业成熟到足以面对外国竞争,就应该对自由贸易开放。李斯特认为,自由贸易只有在经济成熟度相似的国家之间才是可接受的。
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[25]Tianyu Fan, Michael Peters, and Fabrizio Zilibotti, “Service-Led or Service Biased Growth? Equilibrium Development Accounting across Indian Districts,”unpublished manuscript, August 2020.
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[26]Dani Rodrik,“Normalizing Industrial Policy,” Working Paper no. 3, Commissionon Growth and Development, 2008.
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创造性破坏的力量 第9章 绿色创新与可持续增长
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早在20世纪70年代,自然资源的损耗就成为经济观察家与决策者的重要关注点之一。1970年,罗马俱乐部委任的麻省理工学院研究小组提交了《米多斯报告》(Meadows Report),认为有必要结束由工业革命自1820年启动的增长过程,让人类转入零增长轨道:“鉴于不可再生资源的存量有限且日渐减少,以及地球上的空间有限,我们必须普遍接受如下原理,人口增长最终将导致生活水平下降以及更多的复杂问题。”[1]
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更近期以来,对另一个现象的关注强化了停滞不可避免的观点,这就是温室气体排放导致的全球变暖。克里斯蒂安·戈利耶(Christian Gollier)在颇具启发性的著作《月末后的气候》中清晰地指出,直至19世纪初,大气中的碳浓度一直稳定在百万分之280(280ppm)以下。[2]海洋与植物的光合作用足以吸收人类活动产生的二氧化碳。然而随着1820年开始的工业起飞及大规模煤炭开采,这一平衡被打破,大气中的二氧化碳浓度从那个世纪初的280ppm持续增加,至2018年达到410ppm。二氧化碳浓度的急剧提升造成了温室效应,引起全球气候显著变暖。全球变暖对环境有诸多后果:干旱、野火和洪水变得愈加频繁与严重,生物多样性明显减少。全球变暖对人类活动也产生了影响,例如,与气候有关的自然灾害引发的死亡增加,热浪导致生产率明显下降等。
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自然资源的损耗与迎接气候变化挑战的必要性给我们提出了若干问题:自然资源的有限存量与气候变化的约束是否注定经济将陷入停滞,甚至负增长?我们该如何设计向清洁能源的转型?各国政府为抗击气候变化,并继续促进高质量和可持续的增长,有哪些主要的政策杠杆?
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这些将是本章思考的主题。
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