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1704516460 [4]Philippe Aghion, Antoine Dechezleprêtre, David Hémous, Ralf Martin, and John Van Reenen,“Carbon Taxes, Path Dependency, and Directed Technical Change: Evidence from the Auto Industry,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy124,no. 1(2016):1 -51.
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1704516462 [5]电动车是否应该划入“清洁”类型仍存在争议。电动车制造中采用的许多部件的生产未必是生态友好型的,例如电池(ADEME, April 2016, https: // www.ademe. fr/ sites/ default/ files/ assets/ documents/ potential-electric-vehicles. pdf) .
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1704516464 [6]当“黄马甲”运动于2018年秋季在法国兴起时,由于进口石油提价,汽油价格已经非常高,而不是因为于每年1月1日设定的碳税提高。但该运动的激烈程度促使法国政府在2018年预算法案中下调了碳税的年度上调计划。
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1704516466 [7]以新古典范式为基础的若干开创性环境经济学论文包括: Martin L.Weitzman,“On Modeling and Interpreting the Economics of Catastrophic Climate Change,”Review of Economics and Statistics91, no. 1(2009):1 -19;Mikhail Golosov, John Hassler, Per Krusell, and Aleh Tsyvinski,“Optimal Taxes on Fossil Fuel in General Equilibrium,”Econometrica82, no. 1(2014):41 -88;John Hassler, Per Krusell, and A. A. Smith,“Environmental Macroeconomics,” inHandbookofMacroeconomics, ed. John B. Taylor and Harald Uhlig, vol. 2,1893 -2008(Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2016); Michael Greenstone and B. Kelsey Jack,“Envirodevonomics: A Research Agenda for an Emerging Field,”JournalofEconomicLiterature53, no. 1(2015):5 -42.
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1704516468 [8]William D. Nordhaus,“The ‘ DICE ’ Model: Background and Structure of a Dynamic Integrated Climate-Economy Model of the Economics of Global Warming,”Cowles Foundation Discussion Paper 1009, Cowles Foundation for Research in Economics, Yale University, February 1992.
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1704516470 [9]Nicholas Stern,The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2006).
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1704516472 [10]William D. Nordhaus,“A Review of the SternReviewontheEconomicsofClimateChange,”Journal of Economic Literature45, no. 3(2007):686 -702.
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1704516474 [11]本节内容,另可参见Daron Acemoglu, Philippe Aghion, Leonardo Bursztyn,and David Hémous,“The Environment and Directed Technical Change,”AmericanEconomicReview102, no. 1(2012):131 -166.
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1704516476 [12]参见本章注释5中关于电动车是否属于绿色技术的疑问的介绍。
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1704516478 [13]我们这里讨论发达国家与发展中国家的差异,同一论证也适用于不同技术发展水平的国家之间的关系。
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1704516480 [14]Milton Friedman,“The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits,”NewYorkTimesMagazine, September 13,1970,32 -33,122 -124; Arthur C. Pigou,TheEconomicsofWelfare(London: Macmillan, 1920).
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1704516482 [15]Jean Tirole and Roland Bénabou,“Individual and Corporate Social Responsibility,”Economica77, no. 305(2010):1 -19.
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1704516484 [16]Philippe Aghion, Roland Bénabou, Ralf Martin, and Alexandra Roulet,“Environmental Preferences and Technological Choices: Is Market Competition Clean or Dirty?”(NBER Working Paper No. 26921, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, April 2020).
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1704516486 [17]“Americans’ Preference for Environmental Protection vs. Economic Growth, 1984 -2019,” Gallup Poll, https: // news. gallup. com/ poll/ 248243/ preference-environment economy-largest -2000. aspx.
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1704516488 [18]页岩气是包含于沉积岩中的天然气。与埋藏于渗透岩中、易于开采的传统天然气不同,页岩气所处的岩层渗透性很低,孔隙少。因此其开采更为复杂,需要水力压裂等专门技术,把水和化合物以高压注入,以碎裂岩层。
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1704516490 [19]页岩气的环境影响仍存在激烈争议。Robert Howarth及其合作者指出,与传统天然气开采相比,水利压力排放的甲烷至少多出30%,另外我们知道,甲烷造成的温室效应比二氧化碳更为严重。还有,水力压裂技术也存在争议,因为可能导致地下水污染。参见: Robert W. Howarth, Renee Santoro, and Anthony Ingraffea,“Methane and the Greenhouse-Gas Footprint of Natural Gas from Shale Formations,”ClimaticChange106, no. 4(2011):679 -690.
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1704516492 [20]Daron Acemoglu, Philippe Aghion, Lint Barrage, and David Hémous,“Climate Change, Directed Innovation, and Energy Transition: The Long-Run Consequences of the Shale Gas Revolution,”2019 Meeting Papers, No. 1302, Society for Economic Dynamics. https: // scholar. harvard. edu/ aghion/ publications / climate change-directed-innovation-and-energy-transition-long-run-consequences.
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1704516497 创造性破坏的力量 [:1704513585]
1704516498 创造性破坏的力量 第10章 创新的背后
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1704516500 到目前为止,我们一直把创新当作黑匣子来处理:某个抽象的人物投资于研发活动,按照与投资性质有关的概率,他将产生创新成果,随后申请专利并开发其市场价值。然而,现实情况更为复杂。
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1704516502 首先,并非所有人都有相同的机遇成为创新者。家庭与社会环境,尤其是父母的收入水平、教育和职业等,都影响个人从事创新的倾向性。内在的创造力和天赋在个人之间的分布并不均衡,也会发挥作用。我们能否识别哪些因素对个人成为创新者的影响最大?此外,创新会在多大程度上让同一企业的其他人(包括雇员和经理人等)获得好处?
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1704516504 其次,创新并不等于在某个给定时刻投资于研发活动,然后就能以给定概率在将来收获成果。创新是包含若干阶段的整体过程。第一阶段通常是基础研究,即研发中“研”的部分。这些研究得出的成果未必可以用来申请专利,其主导者也未必是为了盈利动机而工作。接下来是应用研究和开发阶段,即研发中“发”的部分。基础研究的动力来自哪里?基础研究如何与更直接面向市场的应用研究相结合?什么样的制度对创新过程中的各个阶段最适用?这些将是本章试图解答的问题。
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1704516509 创造性破坏的力量 [:1704513586]
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