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图16 2016年美国工业机器人的地理分布
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来源：International Federation of Robotics (database), 2016, World Robotics: Industrial Robots, Frankfurt am Main, https://ifr.org/worldrobotics/;S. Ruggles et al., 2018, IPUMS USA, version 8.0 (dataset). https://usa.ipums.org/usa/。
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注释：本图展示了2016年美国各地每千名工人对应的工业机器人数量。颜色越深表示那里的每千名工人对应的机器人数量越多。县边界基于IPUMS NHGIS（www.nhgis.org）提供的地图绘制而成。
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在整个美国，由于工作的出现与消失分布得非常不均衡，计算机革命使得整个国家变得更加不扁平了。在新的技术岗位出现的地方，服务经济迅速增长。莫雷蒂估计在特定的城市，每一个新的技术岗位都能创造足够的需求来支持另外五个岗位。相比之下，蓝领工作岗位消失的那些地方的经济遭受了重创。莫雷蒂发现，每失去一个制造业工作岗位就会引起当地1.6个服务业工作岗位的消失。 40 这一过程表明技能型城市繁荣了，烟囱城市却过时了。直到1970年，俄亥俄州的克利夫兰和密歇根州的底特律的平均收入仍比马萨诸塞州的波士顿及明尼苏达州的明尼阿波利斯更高。但最近几十年来，技能型城市迅速发展，制造业与工业市镇却衰落了。用格莱泽的话来说，“如果这些模式继续下去，我们将可能看到一个发展更不均衡的美国。富有、成功且技能程度高的地区将在世界范围的竞争中取得胜利，贫穷、技能程度低的地区则将成为绝望的温床”。 41
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注释
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1 P. Gaskell, 1833, The Manufacturing Population of England, its Moral, Social, and Physical Conditions (London: Baldwin and Cradock), 6.
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2 出处同上，9。
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3 W. J. Wilson, 1996, “When Work Disappears,” Political Science Quarterly 111 (4): 567.
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4 R. D. Putnam, 2016, Our Kids: The American Dream in Crisis (New York: Simon & Schuster), 7.
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5 出处同上。
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6 出处同上，20。
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7 C. Murray, 2013, Coming Apart: The State of White America, 1960–2010 (New York: Random House Digital, Inc.), 47.
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8 出处同上，193。
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9 W. J. Wilson, 2012, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
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10 R. Chetty, N. Hendren, P. Kline, and E. Saez, 2014, “Where Is the Land of Opportunity? The Geography of Intergenerational Mobility in the United States,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 129 (4): 1553–623; R. Chetty and N. Hendren, 2018, “The Impacts of Neighborhoods on Intergenerational Mobility II: County-Level Estimates,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 133 (3): 1163–228.
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11 参见G. Becker, 1968, “Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach,” Journal of Political Economy 76 (2): 169–217；I. Ehrlich, 1996, “Crime, Punishment, and the Market for Offenses,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 10 (1): 43–67, and 1973, “Participation in Illegitimate Activities: A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation,” Journal of Political Economy 81 (3): 521–65。
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12 C. Vickers and N. L. Ziebarth, 2016, “Economic Development and the Demographics of Criminals in Victorian England,” Journal of Law and Economics 59 (1): 191–223.
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13 E. D. Gould, B. A. Weinberg, and D. B. Mustard, 2002, “Crime Rates and Local Labor Market Opportunities in the United States: 1979–1997,” Review of Economics and Statistics 84 (1): 45–61.
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14 A. J. Cherlin, 2013, Labor’s Love Lost: The Rise and Fall of the Working-Class Family in America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation), figure 1.2.
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15 D. H. Autor, D. Dorn, and G. Hanson, forthcoming, “When Work Disappears: Manufacturing Decline and the Falling Marriage-Market Value of Men” American Economic Review: Insights.
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16 L. S. Jacobson, R. J. LaLonde, and D. G. Sullivan, 1993, “Earnings Losses of Displaced Workers,” American Economic Review 83 (4): 685–709.
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17 D. Sullivan and T. Von Wachter, 2009, “Job Displacement and Mortality: An Analysis Using Administrative Data,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 124 (3): 1265–1306.
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18 A. Case and A. Deaton, 2015, “Rising Morbidity and Mortality in Midlife among White Non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st Century,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112 (49): 15078–83.