打字猴:1.704628441e+09
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1704628442 [10]Amartya Sen,The Idea of Justice (London: Allen Lane,2009),66.
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1704628444 [11]Amartya Sen,Development as Freedom (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1999) .
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1704628446 [12]参见联合国发展署网站: http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-index-hdi。
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1704628448 [13]请参见人类发展和能力协会(Human Development and Capability Association)的网站了解更多关于可行能力法的内容: https://hd-ca.org/。
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1704628450 [14]Anthony B. Atkinson,“Bringing Income Distribution in from the Cold,” Economic Journal 107 (1997): 297-321
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1704628452 [15]Hugh Dalton,Some Aspects of the Inequality of In comes in Modern Communities (London: Routledge,1920),quote p. vii.
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1704628454 [16]Agnar Sandmo,“The Principal Problem in Political Economy: Income Distribution in the History of Economic Thought,” in Anthony B. Atkinson and Franois Bourguignon,eds.,Handbook of Income Distribution,vol. 2A (Amsterdam: Elsevier,2015),3-65,quotes pp. 22,60-61。这条参考书目来源于Gerard Debreu,Theory of Value (New York: John Wiley,1959) 。
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1704628456 [17]N. Gregory Mankiw,Principles of Microeconomics,7th ed. (New York: Worth,2007),and Essentials of Economics,7th ed. (New York: Worth,2014).
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1704628458 [18]与此形成对比的是,INET的“核心项目”(CORE project)开发的新教材突出了经济不平等问题。在“经济学研究什么?”这个问题之下,它的四条答案中的第二条就是“哪些因素可以解释国家和人民的财富及贫困。” http://core-econ.org/about/。
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1704628460 [19]Robert E. Lucas,“The Industrial Revolution: Past and Future,”The Region,2003 Annual Report of the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis,5-20,quote p. 20.
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1704628462 [20]Robert M. Solow,“Dumb and Dumber in Macroeconomics” (2003)。可在网上找到这篇文章:https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/jstiglitz/festschrift/Papers/Stig-Solow.pdf。
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1704628464 [21]基尼系数虽然以Corrado Gini命名,但事实上,两位德国学者Carl Christopher von Andrae和Friedrich Robert Helmert早在基尼系数被广泛认可30年前就建议采用基尼系数所使用的统计方法,即平均差。Corrado Gini,Variabilità e Mutabilità (Bologna: Paolo Cuppini,1912),58n。对统计学的历史感兴趣的读者或许知道Helmert教授也是卡方分配的早期发现者之一。
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1704628466 [22]权重的计算方法是2(1 F),其中F是个人在收入中的排名,请参见Anthony B. Atkinson and Andrea Brandolini,“On Analysing the World Distribution of Income,” World Bank Economic Review 24 (2010): 1-17。
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1704628468 [23]如想了解对经济不平等测量方式的介绍,请参见Stephen P. Jenkins and Philippe van Kerm,“The Measurement of Economic Inequality,” in Wiemer Salverda,Brian Nolan,and Timothy M. Smeeding,eds.,The Oxford Handbook of Economic Inequality (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2009): 40-67。
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1704628470 [24]Herman P. Miller,Income Distribution in the United States (Washington,D.C.: Bureau of the Census,1966),quote p. 2。正如Herman展示的那样,国家人口普查局在60年代以前的数据表明,不平等程度下降的趋势终止于1944年。
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1704628472 [25]纳税最高的1%人群每年都在变化,然而向下的流动性非常有限。在1987年1%最高收入人群里,那些当时处于35—40岁年龄段的人在20年后还有24%的人属于1%最高收入人群,70%的人属于10%最高收入人群。参见Table 1 in Gerald Auten,Geoffrey Gee,and Nicholas Turner,“Income Inequality,Mobility,and Turnover at the Top in the US,1987-2010,”American Economic Review 103 (2013): 168-172。
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1704628474 [26]Robert M. Solow,“Income Inequality since the War,” in Ralph E. Freeman,ed.,Postwar Economic Trends in the United States (New York: Harper and Brothers,1960),quote p. 135.
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1704628476 [27]假设税率固定不变,每个人获得同样的福利,可以在绝大多数收入区间里大致估算税收/转移体系(这个假设是一个合理的第一近似值)。由总收入Y可以得到净收入(1-t)Y+A,其中t代表税率,A代表每个人获得的福利(我们可以将它看作个人收入税的免税额)。由于所有人的A值都相同,所以可支配收入的基尼系数等于(1-t)乘以市场收入(Y)的基尼系数,再除以平均可支配收入与平均市场收入之比。这样的话,如果政府在产品和服务(如医疗、教育和国防等)方面的支出消耗了20%的税收,那么后者的比例为80%。进一步假设市场收入的基尼系数是50%,那么税率上调Δt后,可支配收入基尼系数的下降幅度相当于0.5乘以Δt再除以0.8。如果反向推导这种关系,那么要想将可支配收入的基尼系数降到预期目标,税率就要上调到原来的0.8/0.5 (=1.6)倍。
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1704628478 [28]若想了解OECD国家收入不平等情况的综述,请参见Andrea Brandolini and Timothy M. Smeeding,“Income Inequality in Richer and OECD Countries,” in Salverda,Nolan,and Smeeding,eds.,The Oxford Handbook of Economic Inequality,71-100; Salvatore Morelli,Timothy M. Smeeding,and Jeffrey Thompson,“Post-1970 Trends in Within-Country Inequality and Poverty,” in Atkinson and Bourguignon,eds.,Handbook of Income Distribution,vol. 2; and OECD,Divided We Stand: Why Inequality Keeps Rising (Paris: OECD,2011)。
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1704628480 [29]Martin S. Feldstein,“Rethinking Social Insurance,” American Economic Review 95 (2005): 1-24,quote p. 12.
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1704628482 [30]Brian Abel-Smith and Peter Townsend,The Poor and the Poorest (London: G.Bell,1965); and Anthony B. Atkinson,Poverty in Britain and the Reform of Social Security (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1969).
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1704628484 [31]欧洲委员会的网站上介绍了《欧盟2020战略》:http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/targets/eu-targets/;另外请参见Anthony B. Atkinson and Eric Marlier,“Living Conditions in Europe and the Europe 2020 Agenda,” in Anthony B. Atkinson and Eric Marlier,eds.,Income and Living Conditions in Europe (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union,2010),21-35。
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1704628486 [32]欧洲的贫困线定为均等化家庭可支配收入中位数的60%,因此它会随着收入中位数上下浮动。
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1704628488 [33]若想了解《欧盟2020战略》的中期情况,请参见Hugh Frazer et al.,“Putting the Fight against Poverty and Social Exclusion at the Heart of the EU Agenda: A Contribution to the Mid-Term Review of the Europe 2020 Strategy,” OSE Paper 15 (2014),Observatoire Social Européen,Brussels。
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1704628490 [34]Social Protection Committee,Social Europe: Many Ways,One Objective (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union,2014),quote p.7。
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