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Notes
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1 Our approach to fallacious arguments and to the criteria for the logical assessment of arguments is completely borrowed from the work of two Canadian Philosophers: Ralph H. Johnson and J. Anthony Blair in their book entitled Logical Self-Defense (2006).
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2 Much of this section is based on material from Kay Ann Cassell and Uma Hiremath’s Reference and Information Services in the 21st Century (2006) and Rebecca Sullivan’s Web Research in Academic Libraries (2010).
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3 Many library websites provide examples of how to evaluate websites. Sullivan aggregates a number of these, and the information presented here draws heavily from her book.
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4 A link: search will find pages that link to a particular page. This allows researchers to examine the interrelationships among web pages. For instance, searching on link www.chinareform.org will return pages that link to China Institute for Reform and Development’s main web page. Researchers can use this information to help determine authority and evidence of potential bias. The help files for a search engine will usually indicate whether the search engine supports this feature.
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132468]
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 Part FourElements of Argument and Argumentation
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The chapters in Part Four introduce some important features of argumentation in general. Those features of argumentation are important, not just to educational debate, but to all forms of argumentation that people encounter in society. The features are described in a basic model borrowed from Philosopher Stephen Toulmin created in 1958 (Uses of Argument) and later modified in 1988 in The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning. (Jonsen and Toulmin, 1988: 35) The basic model is so commonly recognized among argumentation teachers and writers that it is now simply referred to as the Toulmin Model of Argument.
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The modified Toulmin Model includes four elements and looks like this:
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In this text, the term data is replaced with evidence, warrant is replaced with link, and rebuttal is replaced with exception. All of these modifications in language are made for the sake of clarity. The concepts remain the same. Thus, the Toulmin Model as discussed in this text looks like this:
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The basic idea underlying the Toulmin Model is that an argument is constructed for the purpose of supporting a claim (and sometimes an exception). The claim, along with any possible exceptions, forms the fundamental thesis of the argument. The evidence consists of any material used to support the claim. The link is the part of the argument that shows the relationship between the evidence and the claim.
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Part Four begins with Chapters 15, 16, and 17 that describe the different elements of argument. Chapter 15 begins by describing claims and exceptions. Then, Chapter 16 describes the function and kinds of evidence. Chapter 17 describes several kinds of links and how they function. Thus, after reading Chapters 15, 16, and 17, a reader should have a basic foundation of the elements central to any argument.
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After discussing the individual elements, different relationships among the four arguments are described in Chapter 18. Chapter 18 describes various structures of argument and Chapter 19 discusses how arguers can structure their arguments around consequences and principles. Then, Chapter 20 shows how to combine different kinds of argument coherently. Finally, Chapter 21 discusses criteria that separate good arguments from poor ones, criteria commonly known as fallacies.
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132469]
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 Chapter 15Elements of Argument: Claims and Exceptions
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Robert Trapp
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Chapter Outline
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15.1 Claims
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15.2 Exceptions
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