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A debater could choose any number of features of traditional Chinese medicine, but choosing one that is potentially linked to positive consequences would be most productive. First, a debater might choose to describe the non-invasive feature of traditional Chinese medicine. For instance, although acupuncture uses very tiny needles to penetrate the skin, it is basically non-invasive. Second, the debater would then associate the non-invasive nature of acupuncture to one or more consequences. In the above illustration, two consequences are chosen: one is a directly positive consequence of acupuncture—it has been shown to help the patient in various ways; the other is that it potentially avoids the negative consequence of surgery. Of course, the debater would need to present further explanation and evidence to make those arguments cogent. Finally, the debater would create a sub-claim to make the ramifications of the consequences explicit by showing the real and positive value of acupuncture in helping with certain diseases, and by showing the dangers of unnecessary surgery that can be avoided by non-invasive techniques.
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132523]
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20.3.2 Supporting a Primary Claim of Policy Using Consequences
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Arguments by consequence are frequently used to support policy claims because of the obvious fit between consequences and actions. Actions have direct consequences, and those consequences are ordinarily the measure of whether an action is considered good or bad. A debater who creates a policy claim is usually proposing some change in policy—in other words, proposing a change in actions taken by the status quo. The basic pattern used in this chapter fits that kind of policy claim nicely, although, in some subtly different ways than it fits the value claim. The basic difference is that the policy claim is comparative—it compares the current policy to a new, proposed policy. So, the various sub-claims related to description, association, and evaluative are comparative. The illustration below shows how such an argument functions:
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As stated earlier, the features described are not single features of an object but are comparative and contrasting features of a current and proposed policy. Similarly, causal associations must be created between the features of the current policy and consequences, as well as between the features of the proposed policy and consequences. Finally, the consequences that are evaluated are those of both the current and the proposed policies.
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A previous chapter used an example of a policy claim about education to illustrate an argument by consequence. By looking back at that example, an astute student will notice that the illustration followed the basic pattern that is used in this chapter, even though the pattern was not made as explicit as it is now. In the illustration below, the example of the policy motion about education is made explicit by the use of the basic pattern. Again, the claim is that nations should guarantee access to education for all citizens.
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The above example is the same argument illustrated in the previous chapter, but here, it is placed in the context of the basic pattern of description, association, and evaluation. The first sub-claim is a descriptive one that contrasts the current policy with the proposed one, noting that the current policy provides insufficient funding and infrastructure while the proposed policy, by contrast, provides additional funding and infrastructure. The second sub-claim is one of a cause and effect association. In that sub-claim, the debater shows that funding and infrastructure are causally linked to access to education, with poor funding and infrastructure being associated with limited access, and good funding and infrastructure being associated with improved access. Finally, the third sub-claim provides an explicit evaluation of educational access, noting that poor educational access increases poverty and generally degrades people’s lives. In contrast, added funding infrastructure has exactly the opposite effect.
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Thus, the previous examples in this chapter show how arguments of consequence can be used to support both value and policy claims. Now, this text turns to claims of value supported using arguments of principle.
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132524]
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20.3.3 Supporting a Primary Claim of Value Using Principles
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An example of a value claim might be “Teachers are engaged in a noble profession.” As stated earlier, a value claim applies some value, principle, or consequence to an object. In the example, the object of evaluation is “teachers,” and the value has something to do with a “noble profession.”
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The chart below describes generally how the basic pattern can be applied to the support of the value claim:
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The pattern illustrated above differs slightly from the basic pattern used before. The primary difference is that the modifications of the pattern make it more specific than the ones that have been used before. First, although the first sub-claim remains an argument of description and definition, the definition is accomplished by describing the essential features of the object. In other words, the object is defined by the presence of its essential features. Essential features are those without which the object would not be itself. By way of an analogy, an essential feature of a mammal is that it is covered with hair or fur. That feature is so essential that any animal not possessing hair or fur would not be defined as a mammal.
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Second, the next sub-claim is an argument of association, but this time it is an association of the features described in the first sub-claim with some principle. Such sub-claim is frequently developed by using an association of similarity: identifying the principle, and then demonstrating how the object to be evaluated is similar to some other object that the audience already evaluates in a positive (or negative) manner. Associations of similarity are not the only kind of associations that can be used to link an object to a principle, but they are common ones.
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Finally, in the third sub-claim, the principle and, thus, the object itself are explicitly evaluated. The association of similarity made in the second sub-claim is quite important in this evaluation. By showing that some other positively evaluated object is similar to the object that the debater is trying to evaluate in a positive manner, the positive evaluation of the other object is transferred to the object of evaluation.
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That description of the basic pattern used for supporting a value claim using principles is still quite abstract. Hopefully, by using the teachers example, the pattern will become clearer. The diagram presented below is intended to illustrate one way that the claim that “Teachers are engaged in a noble profession” can be supported using an argument of principle.
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The first sub-claim is used to describe teachers. Although many arguable descriptions of the teaching profession might be presented, the sub-claim describes them as a well-educated group, devoted to helping others, even without receiving great financial benefit. The sub-claim describes the teaching profession as unselfish because they put the welfare of their students above their own financial gain. The description that is offered is such that it can later be used to associate the teaching profession with other professions whom the audience will also see as engaged in a noble cause.
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In the second sub-claim, the debater associates the teaching profession with a principle. First, the debater needs to describe and support the principle. The second sub-claim begins by naming the unselfish actions of teachers as an important principle. Potential arguments to support that principle include the idea that such unselfish behavior is for the benefit of students even thought the teachers themselves do not receive great financial benefit themselves. Of course, that argument would need further development.
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After supporting the principle, the debater would then draw an association of similarity between the teachers and some other group that the debater believes the audience views in a positive manner. Any number of examples is possible. The choice of other group should be based on the debater’s knowledge of the audience. The chosen other group should be the one that the audience is likely to view in a positive light. For the purposes of illustration, the medical profession is chosen as an example.
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