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A sub-claim associating teachers and medical doctors could suggest that both groups consist of well-educated people who are devoted to helping others. The unselfish, and thus noble cause to which teachers are devoted is further enhanced by the fact that teachers, unlike medical doctors, pursue their profession without the promise of great financial gain.
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Finally, in the third sub-claim, both the principle of selflessness and the teaching profession are explicitly evaluated. In that argument, the similarities between the teachers and medical doctors play an important role. The debater might begin by reminding the audience of the noble cause that medical doctors play by devoting themselves to the physical health of others. The debater should show how valuable medical doctors are in the community. Then the debater should, by comparison, show how teachers follow the same principle of selflessness, and thus is engaged in a “noble profession.”
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132525]
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20.3.4 Supporting a Primary Claim of Policy Using Principles
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Arguments also can be created to support a policy claim by using an argument by principle. Consider, for instance, the claim: “The United Nations should endorse a Declaration of the Rights of Great Apes.” That is an example of a policy claim because it suggests a new course of action by the United Nations. The claim can be supported by the principle of justice using a modified form of the basic pattern described in this chapter.
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One of the primary modifications is necessary because the above primary argument is based on an analogy, the similarities between two objects, rather than on a causal relationship between an object and its consequences. As a result, the descriptions offered in the first sub-claim will need to describe comparative and contrasting features of the two objects that will be examined in the analogy. Furthermore, the second sub-claim will need to be an association of similarity rather than of cause and effect.
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Given those modifications, the basic pattern used to support the policy claim using principles is exemplified in the following illustration:
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As with earlier examples, the above argument is developed using three sub-claims. The first is a descriptive argument. A central object in the primary claim is “Great Apes.” In contrast, another central concept, depending on how the case develops, will probably be “humans.” In the first sub-claim, some features of Great Apes need to be described. In the illustration below, the debater has chosen to describe Great Apes as possessing advanced cognitive and linguistic abilities, including consciousness and recognition of themselves as distinct entities. Great Apes also have complex social and familial structures. Anticipating that the new policy will extend rights to Great Apes, the debater will need to describe features that can be used to associate Great Apes and some principle of rights. Those chosen features appear to be ones that can be used to create such an association.
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Then, in the second sub-claim, the illustration shows how humans have features similar to Great Apes, such as, consciousness, self-recognition, and familial structures. The primary contrast between Great Apes and humans is that humans are protected by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) but Great Apes are not.
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Given the described features, how can a debater create a sub-claim that associates the features of Great Apes and humans with one another and also with a principle, the second element of the basic pattern? One such way is to examine the principle of justice: “Beings in the same essential category should be treated in the same way” (Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1969: 219). The basic requirement of the principle of justice is that beings are considered to belong to the same essential category. According to the comparison of humans and Great Apes, that requirement is arguably satisfied—both humans and Great Apes are animals possessing similar cognitive abilities and, so, share that essential category. Thus, according to the principle of justice, since humans and Great Apes belong to the same category, they deserve to be treated in the same way. The link to the principle of justice is straightforward. Since a general agreement in the United Nations UDHR is that humans belong to a certain category that deserves “human rights,” Great Apes deserve those same rights.
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Finally, the task of evaluation is accomplished by creating a sub-claim that evaluates the basic principle of justice. The most straightforward way to apply the principle of justice to Great Apes involves having the UN pass the Declaration of Rights of Great Apes. Because the Universal Declaration of Human Rights has declared Universal Human Rights belonging to humans, the United Nations should do the same for Great Apes. Doing so would protect Great Apes in at least three ways: 1) by declaring that they have a right to life, that they cannot be killed except in self-defense; 2) by protecting their individual liberties, that they may not be imprisoned unless they have been convicted of a crime; and, 3) by protecting them from torture, that they may not be subjected to severe pain because of a perceived benefit to others.
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The foregoing example of how to support a policy claim using a principle is explained in the illustration below:
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The example has some subtle differences between it and some of the others that have been introduced earlier. Most, but not all, of the earlier examples used causal associations rather than associations of similarity to link the object of evaluation to a value or principle. In this case, an association of similarity has been created between Great Apes and humans. Then, a second association of similarity has been created between an existing policy (the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) and a proposed policy (a Declaration of the Rights of Great Apes). The positive associations between Great Apes and humans were used to illustrate and support the principle of justice that became the primary evaluation criteria in that case. Then, the association between the UDHR and the Declaration of Rights of Great Apes was used to justify applying the principle of justice to Great Apes as it is applied to humans. Thus, an argument of principle can be used to support a value claim.
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132526]
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20.4 Summary
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Previous sections in this chapter have focused on how individual arguments are structured. This chapter has focused on how arguments are combined with one another to create yet another argument, and particularly, on the means by which sub-claims are combined to support a primary claim. The basic pattern described in this chapter shows how descriptive, associational, and evaluative sub-claims can be combined to create claims of value and of policy. The basic pattern has been shown to be useful when applied to both consequential and principled arguments.
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One of the purposes of this chapter is to provide students with a basic pattern for combining arguments that will help them learn to combine a series of sub-claims so that those sub-claims provide coherent support for a primary claim. Creating such combinations is useful in creating arguments that support or oppose various motions in debate.
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之前，我们关注了每一个独立的论点是如何被论证的，而这章则重点关注各个论点之间是如何相互联系、成就另一个论点的，尤其是，各个分论点是如何结合起来支持中心论点的。这章介绍了运用描述、关联和评价型分论点相结合的方法来论证价值类和措施类论点的模式。这种模式在结果型和原则型论证时都非常有用。
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本章所介绍的用以连接各个分论点的一般方法，有助于辩手们将各分论点有机而连贯地结合起来，更好地支持自己的中心论点。无论是作为辩论中的正方还是反方，这种方法都是非常有用的。
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思辨精英：英语辩论-构筑全球视角 [:1705132527]
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20.5 Terms and Concepts from Chapter 20
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Check your memory and comprehension by describing or defining these key terms and concepts:
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· Describe, associate, evaluate pattern
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· Association using causal arguments