打字猴:1.706315824e+09
1706315824
1706315825 23 History of zero: Kaplan 1999:11-57; Teresi 2002:22-25, 86-87, 379-82.
1706315826
1706315827 26 “bleak, frigid land”: von Hagen, V, commentary, in Cieza de León 1959:272.
1706315828
1706315829 26 Tiwanaku: See chap. 7
1706315830
1706315831 26 Populations of Tiwanaku and Paris: Kolata 1993:204-05; Bairoch, Batou, and Chévre 1988:28. Metropolitan Paris reached a quarter million in about 1400.
1706315832
1706315833 27 Wari: See chap. 7.
1706315834
1706315835 27 Glacial evidence of dust storms: Thompson, Davis, and Mosley-Thompson 1994. More than a few archaeologists are skeptical of this evidence (Erickson, pers. comm.).
1706315836
1706315837 27 Mega-Niños: Schimmelmann, Lange, and Meggers 2003; Meggers 1994.
1706315838
1706315839 27 Climate and Tiwanaku, Wari decline: Kolata 2000; Binford et al. 1997; Thompson, Davis, and Mosley-Thompson 1994.
1706315840
1706315841 27 Little Ice Age: Lamb 1995: Chaps. 12, 13; Fagan 2001.
1706315842
1706315843 28 Maya: See Chap. 8.
1706315844
1706315845 29 托尔特克人与尤卡坦:Diehl 1983(基本历史);Coe 1999:165-80(支持曾发生入侵的观点);Schele and Mathews 1998:198-201,尤其是脚注13(反对曾发生入侵)。Schele与Mathews的论点聚焦于颇受争议的碳年代,以及在我看来全然忽略了其内容的对当地艺术品风格的解释。
1706315846
1706315847 29 Mississippians: See Chap. 8.
1706315848
1706315849 31 Plains Indians rock rings: Teresi 2002:107-09.
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1706315851 32 Lake Superior copper: S. R. Martin 1999.
1706315852
1706315853 32 Newly discovered Acre sites: Pärssinen et al. 2003. See also Erickson 2002.
1706315854
1706315855 32 Amazon: See Chap. 9
1706315856
1706315857 32 Early world histories: E.g., Otto I 1966; Dinawari 1986.
1706315858
1706315859 2. 比林顿为何活了下来
1706315860
1706315861 35 Massasoit, Samoset, and Tisquantum: Bradford 1981:87-88; Winslow 1963b:37, 43-59 (“tall proper men,”53); Deetz and Deetz 2000:61-62. In quotations I have modernized the use of“f”and“v.”
1706315862
1706315863 37 Negotiations: Bradford 1981:87-89; Winslow 1963b:50-59 (“very lusty,”57); Deetz and Deetz 2000:61-62; Kupperman 2000:7.
1706315864
1706315865 39 “A friendly Indian”: Wood et al. 1971:73.
1706315866
1706315867 39 Tisquantum’s life: I have relied greatly on Salisbury 1989. See also Adams 1892-93 (vol. 1): 22-44; Foreman 1943:20-21; Humins 1987; Kinnicutt 1914; Shuf felton 1976.
1706315868
1706315869 39 提斯匡特姆和鱼肥:对提斯匡特姆和鱼肥的记述包括Winslow 1963a:81-82(“增产”,82);Bradford 1981:94-95;Morton 1632:89。对施鱼肥之原创性的质疑可追溯到1939年,但真正有说服力的疑议最初见于Rostlund 1957a,而之后的Ceci 1975a,1975b,1990b对此进行了更强有力的论证。Ceci的结论仍有争议(Nanepashemet 1991; Russell 1975, 1980:166-67; Warden 1975),但归根结底,大多数批评都可以总结为否认印第安人太蠢,搞不清楚如何使用化肥的观点,Ceci从未提出这个观点。相反,Ceci认为鉴于休耕制这个备选方案的存在,当地人并不会为了提高这点生产力而大费周章。欧洲由于人均土地更少,流动性也更低,只能施肥。二十世纪九十年代初,马萨诸塞州大学波士顿分校的考古学家斯蒂芬·A·莫洛佐夫斯基(Stephen A. Mrozowski)在科德角出土的证据显示,在五月花号抵达之前几十年,当地印第安人就已经开始把鱼作为肥料使用了。但他尚未发表这一发现(访谈,莫洛佐夫斯基)。出土的鱼也有可能只是日常的生活废料。顺便说一句,鱼在秘鲁是被普遍用作肥料的(Denevan 2001:35-36)。
1706315870
1706315871 40 清教徒对印第安人的动机缺乏好奇心:早期的编年史作者的确探寻了提斯匡特姆的动机,尤其是当他们指责他图谋提高自己地位的时候。但他们并没有在现代意义上试图从他的立场出发进行分析,而这才是问题的关键。根据Bradford,Winslow et al.书中相关讨论的缺失可知,殖民者们也没有对自己为何从未遭遇持续的攻击而感到困惑。在此,我们也不能说殖民者就有多么特别的迟钝。与后来的历史学家相比,清教徒作者更易将印第安人视为独立的、有着自己信仰和目标的社会人(Kupperman 2000:2-4)。
1706315872
1706315873 40 “Divine providence”: Gookin 1792:148.
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