1706316950
1706316951
336 Decipherment of y-ahaw: Usually credited to Houston and Mathews 1985
:27; Bricker 1986
:70.
1706316952
1706316953
336 “The political landscape”: Martin and Grube 2000
:21. Martin’s comparison of the Maya to the Greeks comes from interviews and email.
1706316954
1706316955
336 Sky Witness: Martin and Grube 2000
:90-92, 102-04.
1706316956
1706316957
336 Mutal size and population: Adams and Jones 1981
:318-19; Culbert et al. 1990 (arguing for 425,000 as total size).
1706316958
1706316959
337 Possible motives for Kaan-Mutal war: Fahsen 2003 (trade routes); Harrison 1999
:121 (commerce, dynasty); Grube, pers. comm. (ideology).
1706316960
1706316961
337 Landscape alteration: The literature is vast. Examples include Darch 1988; Dunning et al. 2002; Fedick and Ford 1990; Gunn et al. 2002 (“geochemically hostile,”313); Scarborough and Gallopin 1991; Sluyter 1994. See also, Scarborough 2003.
1706316962
1706316963
338 Oxwitza’ (Caracol): Chase and Chase 2001, 1996, I994 (population, 5).
1706316964
1706316965
338 对穆塔的星际战争攻势：Harrison 1999
:122；Houston 1991；Freidel 1993。彻斯夫妇（the Chases）对卡安的角色持怀疑态度：他们既认为卡安与卡拉考相距太远，又对马丁与格鲁伯的翻译将信将疑（Chase and Chase 2000
:63）。
1706316966
1706316967
339 Maya way of conquest: Grube and Martin 1998.
1706316968
1706316969
340 Dos Pilas: Guenter 2003; Fahsen 2003. Previous attempts at decipherment include Boot 2002a, 2002b; better readings of the glyphs led to corrections. See also, Guenter 2002; Williams 2002.
1706316970
1706316971
340 Stairway quotes: Guenter 2002:39 (flint), 27 (skull).
1706316972
1706316973
344 Morley’s tally of dates: Morley 1946
:64. Updated in Sidrys and Berger 1979; Hamblin and Pitcher 1980. I use Sidrys and Berger. A few hard-to-read inscriptions might have been set down as late as 928.
1706316974
1706316975
344 Four lines of evidence: Robichaux 2002 (waterflow evidence); Gill 2000 (ethnohistorical [Gill also uses many other types of data]; “starvation and thirst,”I); Curtis, Hodell, and Brenner I996 (oxygen data; “driest intervals,”45); Haug et al. 2003 (titanium).
1706316976
1706316977
344 北部地区反常的幸存：Dahlin 2002（“如何以及为何”，327）；Robichaux 2002。玛雅人同时也向西逃往了危地马拉干旱的太平洋沿岸地区。他们在那里不仅度过了干旱期，还取得了中兴。我在主要的记述中之所以并未涉及这些西部城镇，纯粹是为了简洁明了的叙事。
1706316978
1706316979
345 Chichén Itzá: Milbrath and Peraza Lope 2003.
1706316980
1706316981
9. 亚马孙河流域
1706316982
1706316983
349 Orellana’s expedition: The main sources are collected in Heaton ed. 1934 (“by God,”262).The best histories of the expedition that I have come across are Smith 1990
:chap. 2; Hemming 1987
:185-94. Still enjoyable to read, though dated, is Prescott 2000 (“Not a bark,”1075).
1706316984
1706316985
349 Orellana’s betrayal: The case for the prosecution is summed up in Means 1934. For Pizarro’s reaction, see letter, Pizarro, G., to king, 3 Sept. 1542, in Heaton 1934
:245-51 (“the greatest cruelty,”248).
1706316986
1706316987
351 “We were eating”: Heaton ed. 1934
:408.
1706316988
1706316989
351 Angry hives: I have borrowed the simile from Smith 1990
:68. The next two sentences are essentially reworkings of his sentences.
1706316990
1706316991
351 Carvajal on populousness, Tapajós attacks: Heaton I934 ( “farther we went,”202;“all inhabited,”“five leagues,”198; “numerous and very large,”200; “Inland,”216; “more than twenty,”203).
1706316992
1706316993
351 Carvajal publication: Medina ed. 1894.
1706316994
1706316995
352 对卡尔瓦哈尔的批评：López de Gómara 1979
:131（“一派胡言”）；Myers et al. 1992；Denevan 1996a
:661-64；另见Shoumatoff 1986。说也奇怪，批判者极少提到奥雷利亚纳的记述与第二支亚马孙探险队的记述极为相似的事实。这支由佩德罗·德·奥苏亚（Pedro de Orsua）领衔的探险队，也正是沃纳·赫尔佐格导演的电影《阿基尔，上帝的愤怒》（Aguirre, the Wrath of God）的主题。González and Tur eds. 1981汇集了相关的基础资料。探险队于1561年止步于塔帕若斯河，但未能提供更多关于整个地区的信息。他们留下的记载向后人提示，印第安城镇的街道是在网格内铺开的，而且当地有一些木制庙宇，庙门上还涂画着神灵的形象（González and Tur eds. 1981
:111，370）。
1706316996
1706316997
352 生态学家的观点：Arnold 2000。这些观点与西方社会将亚马孙地区视为热带伊甸园的总体倾向不谋而合。相关讨论见Holanda 1996；Slater 1995；以及极富争议的Stott 1999。1898年，德国生态学家安德列亚斯·申佩尔（Andreas Schimper）发明了作为科学构想的“热带雨林”一词（Schimper 1903）。这是一种新的科学类别的范例，既涵盖了人居社群，又包括了自然环境，二者共同铸造了一个单一，可称为生态系统（申佩尔的学校于1935年发明了这一术语）的功能单位。
1706316998
1706316999
353 More sympathetic views of Carvajal: Author’s intervews, Balée, Erickson, Peter Stahl, Anna Roosevelt. See also, Porro 1994, Whitehead 1994, for contemporary treatments of early accounts.
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