打字猴:1.707566128e+09
1707566128
1707566129 有些书还总结了马雅地区某些特定城市的兴衰。如David Webster、Ann Corinne Freter和Nancy Gonlin合著的Copán:The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Maya Kingdom(Fort Worth:Harcourt Brace, 2000);Peter Harrison的The Lords of Tikal(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1999);Stephen Houston的Hieroglyphs and History at Dos Pilas(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1993);以及M.R.Dunning 的Lords of the Hills:Ancient Maya Settlement in the Puuc Region, Yucatán, Mexico(Madison, Wis.:Prehistory Press, 1992)。关于马雅历史和社会的书籍(没有专门探讨崩溃问题)可参见Michael Coe的The Maya, 6th ed.(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1999);Simon Martin 和Nikolai Grube 的Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens(New York:Thames and Hudson, 2000);Robert Sharer的The Ancient Maya(Stanford, Calif.:Stanford University Press, 1994);Linda Schele与David Freidel合著的A Forest of Kings(New York:William Morrow, 1990);以及Linda Schele和Mary Miller的The Blood of Kings(New York:Braziller, 1986)。
1707566130
1707566131 John Stephens将自己的发现写在两本经典作品中:一本是Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan(New York:Harper, 1841);还有一本是Incidents of Travel in Yucatan(New York:Harper, 1843)。这两本书都由Dover Publication 重印。Victor Wolfgang von Hagen 在Maya Explorer(Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, 1984)一书中介绍了John Stephens的一生及其伟大的发现。
1707566132
1707566133 B.L.Turner Ⅱ在马雅集约化农业和人口方面出版了不少论文和书籍。它们有“Prehistoric intensive agriculture in the Mayan lowlands”(Science 185:118-124(1974));他与Peter Harrison共同发表的“Prehistoric raised-field agriculture in the Maya lowlands”(Science 213:399-405(1981));他们两人还合写了Pulltrouser Swamp:Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize(Austin:University of Texas Press, 1983);Thomas Whitmore与B.L.Turner Ⅱ合作发表了“Landscapes of cultivation in Mesoamerica on the eve of the conquest”(Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82:402-425(1992));以及B.L.Turner Ⅱ和K.W.Butzer合作发表的论文“The Columbian encounter and land-use change”(Environment 43:16-20 and 37-44(1992))。
1707566134
1707566135 最近发表的以湖芯研究作为马雅崩溃与干旱有关的证据的论文有Mark Brenner 等人写的“Paleolimnology of the Maya lowlands:long-term perspectives on interactions among climate, environment, and humans”(Ancient Mesoamerica 13:141-157(2002))(同期值得关注的论文见pp.79-170 和 263-345);David Hodell 等人发表的 “Solar forcing of drought frequency in the Maya lowlands”(Science 292:1367-1370(2001));Jason Curtis等人发表的“Climate variability of the Yucatán Peninsula(Mexico)during the past 3500 years,and implications for Maya cultural evolution”(Quaternary Research 46:37-47(1996));以及David Hodell 等人合写的“Possible role of climate in the collapse of Classic Maya civilization”(Nature 375:391-394(1995))。这些科学家专门在佩滕地区进行湖芯研究以了解干旱的影响,相关论文见Michael Rosenmeier写的“A 4000-year lacustrine record of environmental change in the southern Maya lowlands, Petén, Guatemala”(Quaternary Research 57:183-190(2002));以及Jason Curtis等人发表的“A multi-proxy study of Holocene environmental change in the Maya lowlands of Petén, Guatemala”(Journal of Paleolimnology 19:139-159(1998))。此外,Gerald Haug等人发表的“Climate and the collapse of Maya civilization”(Science 299:1731-1735(2003))也可供读者参考,文中科学家们通过对被河流冲积到海洋的沉积物进行分析,以了解每年雨量的变化。
1707566136
1707566137 对马雅文明感兴趣的读者请勿错过Mary Ellen Miller写的The Murals of Bonampak(Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press, 1986),书中收录了很多壁画的图片,有黑白,也有彩色,还有酷刑的画面。Justin Kerr写的介绍马雅陶器的一系列书The Maya Vase Book(New York:Kerr Associates, various dates)也值得推荐。破解马雅文字的过程精彩纷呈,相关书籍有Michael Coe的Breaking the Maya Code,2nd ed.(New York:Thames and Hudson, 1999)以及Stephen Houston、Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazareigos和David Stuart合著的The Decipherment of Ancient Maya Writing(Norman:University of Oklahoma, 2001)。关于提卡尔的蓄水池,可参看下列文章:Vernon Scarborough与Gari Gallopin写的“A water storage adaptation in the Maya lowlands”(Science 251:658-662(1991));Lisa Lucero在其论文“The collapse of the Classic Maya:a case for the role of water control”(American Anthropologist 104:814-826(2002))中提出马雅各地区可用水量的差异导致马雅古典时期城市间崩溃时间的不同;Arturo Gómez-Pompa、JoséSalvador Flores和Victoria Sosa在他们的论文“The‘pet kot’:a man-made tropical forest of the Maya”(Interciencia 12:10-15(1987))中对马雅人培育有用树种进行了研究分析。Timothy Beach的研究报告“Soil catenas,tropical deforestation, and ancient and contemporary soil erosion in the Petén, Guatemala”(Physical Geography 19:378-405(1998))表现了马雅有些地区利用梯田来改善水土流失的情况。Richard Hansen等人写的“Climatic and environmental variability in the rise of Maya civilization:a preliminary perspective from northern Petén,”(Ancient Mesoamerica 13:273-295(2002))一文用跨学科的研究方式对前古典时期人口稠密的地区进行分析,并证明石灰生产与森林砍伐之间的关系。
1707566138
1707566139
1707566140
1707566141
1707566142 崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 [:1707562093]
1707566143 崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第六章至第八章
1707566144
1707566145 William Fitzhugh 与Elisabeth Ward共同编辑的Vikings:The North Atlanta Saga(Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000)内含许多彩色插图,全书共有31章,详细地介绍了维京社会、维京人在欧洲的扩张及维京人在北大西洋建立的殖民地。若要简明版的,可参阅Eric Christiansen写的The Norsemen in the Viking Age(Oxford:Blackwell, 2002)及F.Donald Logan写的The Vikings in History, 2nd ed.(New York:Routledge, 1991),还有Else Roestahl写的The Vikings(New York:Penguin, 1987)。Gwyn Jones的Vikings:The North Atlantic Saga, 2nd ed.(Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1986)以及G.J.Marcus的The Conquest of the North Atlantic(New York:Oxford University Press, 1981)则把焦点放在维京人在冰岛、格陵兰岛和文兰等北大西洋殖民地的发展情况。Jones在书中还收录了维京英雄们传奇故事的英译,其中有冰岛人之书、文兰英雄传奇和Einar Sokkason的故事。
1707566146
1707566147 关于冰岛历史,最近出版的两本书值得一看。一本是Jesse Byock的Viking Age Iceland(New York:Penguin Putnam, 2001), 这本书是以他以前写的Medieval Iceland:Society, Sagas, and Present(Berkeley:University of California Press, 1988)一书为基础写就的,对冰岛的介绍止于邦联时期(1262—1264);还有一本是Gunnar Karlsson的Iceland’s 1100 Years:The History of a Marginal Society(London:Hurst, 2000),不仅涵盖了冰岛的中古时期,还涉及现代冰岛部分。在Judith Maizels与Chris Caseldine编辑的Environmental Change in Iceland, Past and Present(Dordrecht:Kluwer, 1991)一书中,收录了多位作者的文章,专门研究冰岛环境史。Kirsten Hastrup在Island of Anthropology:Studies in Past and Present Iceland(Viborg:Odense University Press, 1990)中收录了自己写的以冰岛为主题的人类学研究报告。The Sagas of Icelanders:A Selection(New York:Penguin, 1997)一书中有17篇维京人的英译传奇故事(内有2篇文兰传奇),这些故事选自五卷本的The Complete Sagas of Icelanders(Reykjavík:Leifur Eiriksson, 1997)。
1707566148
1707566149 有两篇论文论及冰岛的景观变化:Andrew Dugmore等人发表的 “Tephrochronology, environmental change and the Norse settlement of Iceland”(Environmental Archaeology 5:21-34(2000)),和Ian Simpson等人的论文“Crossing the thresholds:human ecology and historical patterns of landscape degradation”(Catena 42:175-192(2001))。由于每种昆虫对于栖息地和气候条件的要求都不相同,Paul Buckland与其同事通过对从考古遗址中保存下来的昆虫做研究,找出环境指标。他们的研究报告有Gudrún Sveinbjarnardóttir等人发表的“Landscape change in Eyjafjallasveit,Southern Iceland”(Norsk Geog, Tidsskr 36:75-88(1982));Paul Buckland等人发表的“Late Holocene palaeoecology at Ketilsstadir in Myrdalur, South Iceland”(Jökull 36:41-5(1986));Paul Buckland等人发表的“Holt in Eyjafjallasveit, Iceland:a paleoecological study of the impact of Landnám”(Acta Archaeologica 61:252-271(1991)):Gudrún Sveinbjarnardóttir等人发表的“Shielings in Iceland:an archaeological and historical survey”(Acta Archaeologica:61:74-96(1991));Paul Buckland等人写的“Palaeoecological investigations at Reykholt, Western Iceland,”收录于C.D.Morris与D.J.Rackhan编辑的Norse and Later Settlement and Subsistence in the North Atlantic(Glasgow:Glasgow University Press, 1992), pp.149-168;Colleen Batey等人编辑的The Viking Age in Caithness, Orkney and the North Atlantic(Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, 1993)书中收录了Paul Buckland等人合写的论文“An insect’s eye-view of the Norse farm,”pp.518-528。还有Kevin Edwards等人发表的“Landscapes at Landnám:palynological and palaeoentomological evidence from Toftanes,Faroe Islands”(Fródskaparrit 46:177-192(1998))同样以昆虫为切入点,以了解法罗群岛气候变化。
1707566150
1707566151 关于维京人在格陵兰的发展,下面两本书里有详细的资料:Kirsten Seaver写的The Frozen Echo:Greenland and Exploration of North America ca.A.D.1000-1500(Stanford, Calif.:Stanford University Press, 1996);以及Finn Gad写的The History of Greenland, vol.Ⅰ:Earliest Times to 1700(Montreal:McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1971)。Finn Gad其后又写了一本The History of Greenland, vol.Ⅱ:1700-1782(Montreal:McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1973),探讨了格陵兰岛再次为世人发现和丹麦人在此殖民的情形。Niels Lynnerup在他的专著The Greenland Norse:A Biologic-Anthropological Study(Copenhagen:Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland, 1998)里对格陵兰出土的维京人的骨骸进行了分析。至于因纽特人在格陵兰以及在他们之前来到格陵兰发展的美洲土著,下面两本文集可供参考:Martin Appelt与Hans Christian Gullóv等人编辑的Late Dorset in High Arctic Greenland(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 1999)和Martin Appelt等人编辑的Identities and Cultural Contacts in the Arctic(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 2000)。Jens Peder Hart Hansen等人编辑的The Greenland Mummies(London:British Museum Press, 1991)详细描述了在格陵兰出土的因纽特人的尸体,其中有六个女人、一个孩子和一个婴儿。这些人大约埋葬于1475年,由于格陵兰气候干冷,使得这些尸体和衣服没有腐烂,保存完好。该书封面就是那个六个月死婴的脸部照片,让人难以忘怀。
1707566152
1707566153 近20年来,关于维京人在格陵兰的考古遗址,最重要的两个系列研究出自Thomas McGovern和 Jette Arneborg 及他们的同事。McGovern的论文有“The Vinland adventure:a North Atlantic perspective”(North American Archaeologist 2:285-308(1985));Thomas McGovern的“Contributions to the paleoeconomy of the Norse Greenland”(Acta Archaeologica 54:73-122(1985));Thomas McGovern等人合写的“Northern islands, human era, and environmental degradation:a view of social and ecological change in the medieval North Atlantic”(Human Ecology 16:225-270(1988));Thomas McGovern写的“Climate, correlation, and causation in Norse Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 28:77-100(1991));Thomas McGovem等人合写的“A vertebrate zooarchaeology of Sandnes V51:economic change at a chieftain’s farm in West Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 33:94-121(1996));Thomas Amorosi等人写的“Raiding the landscape:human impact from the Scandinavian North Atlantic”(Human Ecology 25:491-518(1997));以及Tom Amorosi等人合写的“They did not live by grass alone:the politics and paleoecology of animal fodder in the North Atlantic region”(Environmental Archaeology Ⅰ:41-54(1998))。Arneborg的论文包括Jette Arneborg的“The Roman church in Norse Greenland”(Acta Archaeologica 61:142-150(1990))和“Contact between Eskimos and Norsemen in Greenland:a review of the evidence”。第二篇论文被收录于Tvaerfaglige Vikingesymposium(Aarhus, Denmark:Aarhus University, 1993), pp.23-35;还有论文“Burgundian caps, Basques and dead Norsemen at Herjolfsnaes Greenland”收录在Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark(Copenhagen:Nationalmuseet, 1996), pp.75-83。还有Jette Arneborg等人合作发表的 “Change of diet of the Greenland Vikings determined from stable carbon isotope analysis and 14C dating of their bones”(Radiocarbon 41:157-168(1999))。由Arneborg 与她的同事们在格陵兰西聚落厚沙层下挖掘出著名的遗址“沙下农场”。在Jette Arneborg 和Hans Christian Gullóv合作编辑的论文集Man, Culture and Environment in Ancient Greenland(Copenhagen:Danish Polar Center, 1998)中收录了一些关于沙下农场等遗址的论文。C.L .Vebaek也在Meddelelser om Grónland, Man and Society, Copenhagen上发表了三篇论文(编号为14、17、18(1991、1992、1993)),描述他从1945年到1962年在格陵兰的考古研究:The Church Topography of the Eastern Settlement and the Excavation of the Benedictine Convent at Narsarsuaq in the Uunartoq Fjord;Vatnahverfi:An Inland District of the Eastern Settlement in Greenland;以及Narsaq:A Norse Landnáma Farm。
1707566154
1707566155 关于维京人在格陵兰的其他论文还有如下几篇:Robert McGhee发表的 “Contact between Native North Americans and the medieval Norse:a review of the evidence”(American Antiquity 49:4-26(1984));Joel Berglund的“The decline of the Norse settlements in Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 23:109-135(1986));Svend Albrethsen与Christian Keller合作发表的“The use of the saeter in medieval Norse farming in Greenland”(Arctic Anthropology 23:91-107(1986));Christian Keller的“Vikings in the West Atlantic:a model of Norse Greenlandic medieval society”(Acta Archaeologica 61:126-141(1990));Bent Fredskild的论文“Agriculture in a marginal area:South Greenland from the Norse landnam(1985 A.D.)to the present 1985 A.D.,”收录于Hilary Birks等人编辑的The Cultural Landscape:Past,Present and Future(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp.381-393;Bent Fredskild的论文“Erosion and vegetational changes in South Greenland caused by agriculture”(Geografisk Tidsskrift 92:14-21(1992));还有Bjarne Jakobsen的“Soil resources and soil erosion in the Norse Settlement area of Østerbygden in southern Greenland”(Acta Borealia 1:56-68(1991))。
1707566156
1707566157
1707566158
1707566159
1707566160 崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 [:1707562094]
1707566161 崩溃:社会如何选择成败兴亡 第九章
1707566162
1707566163 关于新几内亚高地社会,下面三本书以不同的角度对它进行研究分析,各有所长。一本是Gavin Souter从历史观点出发写的New Guinea:The Last Unknown(Sydney:Angus and Robertson, 1964);一本是Bob Connolly与Robin Anderson合写的First Contact(New York:Viking, 1987),讲述新几内亚高地族群与欧洲人初次接触时的感人故事;而Tim Flannery的Throwim Way Leg(New York:Atlantic Monthly Press, 1998)写的则是一个动物学家在新几内亚高地的经验。R.Michael Bourke的两篇论文探讨了新几内亚高地用木麻黄种植等农业手段来维持土壤维持肥沃:“Indigenous conservation farming practices,”Report of the Joint ASOCON/Commonwealth Workshop, pp.67-71(Jakarta:Asia Soil Conservation Network, 1991)与“Management of fallow species composition with tree planting in Papua New Guinea”,Resource Management in Asia — Pacific Working Paper 1997/5(Canberra:Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies,Australia National University,1997)。Simon Haberle则在下面三篇论文中用古植物学证据重建了新几内亚高地居民种植木麻黄的历史:“Paleoenvironmental changes in the eastern highlands of Papua New Guinea”(Archaeology in Oceania 31:1-11(1996));“Dating the evidence for agricultural change in the Highlands of New Guinea:the last 2000 years”(Australian Archaeology no.47:1-19(1998));以及S.G.Haberle、G.S.Hope 和Y.de Fretes合作发表的“Environmental change in the Baliem Valley, montane Irian Jaya, Republic of Indonesia”(Journal of Biogeography 18:25-40(1991))。
1707566164
1707566165 Patrick Kirch与Douglas Yen在下面这篇论文里描述了他们在蒂科皮亚岛的田野作业:“Tikopia:The Prehistory and Ecology of a Polynesia Outlier”(Honolulu:Bishop Museum Bulletin 238, 1982)。Kirch还单独发表了几篇关于蒂科皮亚岛的论文,其中有:“Exchange systems and inter-island contact in the transformation of an island society:the Tikopia case”,这篇论文被收录于Patrick Kirch编辑的Island Societies:Archaeogical Approaches to Evolution and Transformation(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1986),pp.33-41;他的专著The Wet and the Dry(Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1994)的第12章就是专门描述蒂科皮亚岛;还有“Tikopia social space revisited,”收录在J.M.Davidson等人编辑的Oceanic Culture History:Essays in Honour of Roger Green(New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication, 1996), pp.257-274;以及“Microcosmic histories:island perspective on ‘global’ change”(American Anthropologist 99:30-42(1997)).Raymond Firth写了一系列以蒂科皮亚为题材的书籍,包括We, the Tikopia(London:George Allen and Unwin, 1936)和Primitive Polynesian Economy(London:George Routledge and Sons, 1939)。David Steadman、Dominique Pahlavin与Patrick Kirch等人在“Extinction,biogeography, and human exploitation of birds on Tikopia and Anuta, Polynesian outliers in the Solomon Islands”(Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 30:118-153(1990))一文对于人类定居蒂科皮亚岛初期鸟类的灭绝进行了探讨。有关蒂科皮亚岛的人口变化和人口控制方式,可参阅W.D.Borrie、Raymond Firth与James Spillius合著的“The population of Tikopia, 1929 and 1952”(Population Studies 10:229-252(1957))。
1707566166
1707566167 我在本章对日本德川幕府的描述,基于Conrad Totman写的下面三本专著:The Green Archipelago:Forestry in Preindustrial Japan(Berkeley:University of California Press, 1989);Early Modern Japan(Berkeley:University of California Press,1993);以及The Lumber Industry in Early Modern Japan(Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press, 1995)。John Richards在他的The Unending Frontier:An Environmental History of the Early Modern World(Berkeley:University of California Press, 2003)一书的第5章提到了Totman的观点,还引用了一些现代环境案例比较研究中关于日本森林的研究结果。Luke Roberts在其著作Mercantilism in a Japanese Domain:The Merchant Origins of Economic Nationalism in 18th-century Tosa(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1998)提出大名的经济严重依赖于森林。有关日本德川幕府早期历史可参阅John Whitney Hall编辑的Early Modern Japan(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1991)一书中Cambridge History of Japan的卷四。
1707566168
1707566169 有关丹麦、瑞士和法国如何从滥伐森林转变成为大力育林,可参阅Alexander Mather的“The transition from deforestation to reforestation in Europe”,该论文被收录于A.Angelsen与D.Kaimowitz编辑的Agriculture Technologies and Tropical Deforestation(New York:CABI Publishing, 2001), pp.35-52。关于印加帝国安第斯地区造林事件,可参见Alex Chepstow-Lusty与Mark Winfield合作发表的“Inca agroforestry:lessons from the past”(Ambio 29:322-328(1998))。
1707566170
1707566171 现代小型农业社会自给自足的案例可参考下列文章:涉及瑞士阿尔卑斯山区的有Robert Netting的“Of men and meadows:strategies of alpine land use”(Anthropological Quarterly 45:132-144(1972));“What alpine peasants have in common:observations on communal tenure in a Swiss village”(Human Ecology 4:135-146(1976)),以及Balancing on an Alp(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1981);关于西班牙灌溉系统,见T.F.Click的Irrigation and Society in Medieval Valencia(Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 1970),还有A.Maass与R.L.Anderson合著的And the Desert Shall Rejoice:Conflict, Growth and Justice in Arid Environments(Malabar, Fla.:Krieger, 1986);有关菲律宾灌溉系统的专著见R.Y.Siy Jr.的Community Resource Management:Lessons from the Zanjera(Quezon City:University of Philippines Press, 1982)。Elinor Ostrom在其著作Governing the Commons(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1990)的第3章对瑞士、西班牙和菲律宾的灌溉系统进行了比较。
1707566172
1707566173 探讨印度种姓制度下的生态问题的论文有Madhav Gadgil与Ramachandra Guha合著的This Fissured Land:An Ecological History of India(Delhi:Oxford University Press, 1992);Madhav Gadgil与K.C.Malhotra发表的“Adaptive significance of the Indian castes system:an ecological perspective”(Annals of Human Biology 10:465-478(1983)),以及Madhav Gadgil和Prema Iyer合作发表的“On the diversification of common Property resource use by Indian society,”这篇论文被收录于F.Berkes编辑Common Property Resources:Ecology and Community-based Sustainable Development(London:Belhaven, 1989), pp.240-255。
1707566174
1707566175 有关过去社会失败的案例,我已经深入探讨了五个耳熟能详的例子。然而还有一些过去社会的案例,虽然也被大众熟知,也同样由于滥用资源导致衰退或瓦解,但我在书中没有讨论那些案例,因为它们本身具有太多不确定性和争议。不过为了完整起见,这里我还是简要地提及其中九个案例,先讲新大陆,再讲旧大陆。
1707566176
1707566177 从贝冢出土的贝壳显示,洛杉矶外海加州海峡群岛的美洲土著过度捕捞贝类,年代最久的贝冢出土的贝类体积最大,这些大贝类都生长在近岸处,因此很容易被捕捞。年代越近的贝冢,出土的贝类就越小,它们大多生长在离岸较远或是水深处。最后几乎所有的贝类都被捕捞而尽,只剩下没有经济效益或是很难捕捞的。见Terrv Jones编辑的Essays on the Prehistory of Maritime California(Davis, Calif.:Center for Archaeological Research, 1992);L.Mark Raab的“An optimal foraging analysis of prehistoric shellfish collecting on San Clemente Island, California”(Journal of Ethnobiology 12:63-80(1992))。在这个群岛,还有一种被过度消耗的食物是不会飞的海鸭(Chendytes lawesi),正因为其不会飞,所以很容易被捕杀。在人类定居海峡群岛不久后,这种海鸭就灭绝了。现代南加州的鲍鱼也难逃此厄运。1966年,我刚搬到洛杉矶时,本地超市还能买到渔民在海边捕捞的鲍鱼,其后由于过度捕捞,鲍鱼已从洛杉矶各餐厅的菜单消失了。
[ 上一页 ]  [ :1.707566128e+09 ]  [ 下一页 ]