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[4]关于农业起源的探讨,可参见David Christian,MapsofTime:AnIntroductiontoBigHistory(Berkeley and Los Angeles,CA:University of California Press,2004;中译本见大卫·克里斯蒂安:《时间地图:大历史导论》,晏可佳等译,上海社会科学院出版社,2007)第八章;以及Joachim Radkau,NatureandPower:AGlobal HistoryoftheEnvironment(Cambridge,UK and New York,NY:Cambridge University Press,2008;中译本见约阿希姆·拉德卡:《自然与权力:世界环境史》,王国豫、付天海译,河北大学出版社,2004)第二章。
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[5]Ping-ti Ho,TheCradleoftheEast:AnInquiryintotheIndigenousOrigins ofTechniquesandIdeasofNeolithicandEarlyHistoricChina,5000-1000B.C.(Chicago,IL:The University of Chicago Press,1975).
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[6]Hui-lin Li,“The Domestication of Plants in China:Ecogeographical Considerations,”in TheOriginsofChineseCivilization,ed.Keightley,21-64;Te-tzu Chang,“The Origins and Early Cultures of Cereal Grains and Food Legumes,”in TheOrigins ofChineseCivilization,ed.Keightley,65-94.
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[7]一个简洁的说明可参见Yan Wenming,“The Beginning of Farming,”in The FormationofChineseCivilization:AnArcheologicalPerspective,ed.Sarah Allen(New Haven,CT and London,UK:Yale University Press,2005;中译本见张光直、徐苹芳等:《中国文明的形成》,新世界出版社,2004)第二章。
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[8]多年生植物的植株有很大一部分都在地下——发展根系以吸收水分是唯一可以安然度过干旱季节的办法。而对于一年生植物来说,能量则主要用来发展地上部分以及生产种子。一年生植物不需要为度过干旱季节而生长发达的根系,但代之以生产多得多的种子来获得本物种更大的生存机会。这些信息来自笔者与惠特尔学院植物学教授Cheryl Swift的私人通信。
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[9]Whyte,“The Evolution of the Chinese Environment,”13.
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[10]Chi-wu Wang,TheForestsofChina(Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press,1961),159.
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[11]转引自Shiba Yoshinobu,CommerceandSocietyinSongChina(Ann Arbor,MI:The University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies,1970),8。中译本见斯波义信:《宋代商业史研究》,庄景辉译,稻禾出版社,1997,第63页。译者注:周去非:《岭外代答·器用门·舟楫附》。
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[12]转引自Marks,Tigers,41-42。中译本参见《虎、米、丝、泥》,第40-41页。译者注:《南方草木状》。
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[13]Francesca Bray,Agriculture,in Joseph Needham,ScienceandCivilizationin China,vol.6,part II(Cambridge,UK and New York,NY:Cambridge University Press,1984),481-485.
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[14]Gary W.Crawford and Chen Shen,“The Origins of Rice Agriculture:Recent Progress in East Asia,”Antiquity 72(1998):858-866.
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[15]Yan,“The Beginning of Farming,”34-41(中译本见张光直、徐苹芳等:《中国文明的形成》,第二章);Gary W.Crawford and Chen Shen,“The Origins of Rice Agriculture:Recent Progress in East Asia,”Antiquity 72(1998):858-866.
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[16]Bray,Agriculture,489-495.
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[17]Steven Mithen,AftertheIce:AGlobalHumanHistory,20,000-5,000 BC(Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press,2003),359-369.亦可参见Crawford and Shen,“The Origins of Rice Agriculture,”858-866。
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[18]Hui-lin Li,“The Domestication of Plants in China:Ecogeographical Considerations,”in TheOriginsofChineseCivilization,ed.Keightley,43.
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[19]William Ruddiman,Plows,Plagues,andPetroleum:HowHumansTook Control of Climate(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,2016),65-75,76-83,204-205.
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[20]最近三项关于疟疾的研究包括:Sonia Shah,TheFever:HowMalariaHas RuledHumankindfor 500,000 Years(New York,NY:Farrar,Straus,and Giroux,2010);James L.A.Webb,Jr.,Humanity’sBurden:AGlobalHistoryofMalaria(New York,NY:Cambridge University Press,2009);and Randall M.Packard,The MakingofaTropicalDisease:AShortHistoryofMalaria(Baltimore,MD:The Johns Hopkins University Press,2007)。
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[21]Elizabeth Hsu,“The History of qinghao in the Chinese materiamedica,”TransactionoftheRoyalSocietyofTropicalMedicineandHygiene(2006),505-508.
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[22]Yoshinobu Shiba,“Environment versus Water Control:The Case of the Southern Hangzhou Bay Are from the Mid-Tang through the Qing,”in SedimentsofTime:EnvironmentandSocietyinChineseHistory,eds.Mark Elvin and Liu Ts’ui-jung(Cambridge,UK and New York,NY:Cambridge University Press,1998),137-138.中译本见刘翠溶、伊懋可主编:《积渐所至:中国环境史论文集》,“中央研究院”经济研究所,1995,第271-294页。
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[23]照片参见Cressey,80,133。
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[24]关于黄土高原是否曾经被森林覆盖有相当大的争议,张光直认为有,而何炳棣认为没有,参见K.C.Chang,CHAC,43;Ping-ti Ho,TheCradleoftheEast:AnInquiryintotheIndigenousOriginsofTechniquesandIdeasofNeolithicandEarlyHistoric China,5000-1000B.C.(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1975)。我的观点更接近于何炳棣另一篇稍做修正的文章,“The Paleoenvironment of North China—A Review Article,”JournalofAsianStudies 43,no.4(August 1984):725-726,即黄土高原是一个“半干旱草原”,而黄河流经之处以及东部的华北平原则“覆盖着大片的森林”。
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[25]Li,“The Domestication of Plants,”23.
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[26]Menzies,Forestry,558.最近一项关于孢粉研究的成果证实了孟泽思的观点:“根据统计数据,我们认为最近十万年以来,除了一些特别适合森林生长的短时期(例如末次冰期期间),黄土高原上并没有森林。”Xiangjun Sun,Changqing Song,Fengyu Wang,and Mengrong Sun,“Vegetation History of the Loess Plateau of China during the Last 100,000 Years Based on Pollen Data,”QuaternaryInternational 37(1997):25-36.
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[27]Chun Chang Huang,Jiangli Peng,Qunying Zhou,and Shu’e Chen,“Holocene Pedogenic Change and the Emergence and Decline of Rain-Fed Cereal Agriculture on the Chinese Loess Plateau,”QuaternaryScienceReviews 23(2004):2525-2535.感谢孟泽思向我推荐了这篇文章。译者注:按照现代植物学的分类方法,“黍”属于禾本科的“黍属”(Panicum),栽培黍的学名是Panicum miliaceum;“粟”属于禾本科的“狗尾草属”(Setaria),栽培粟的学名是Setaria italica。两者是两个不同“属”(genus)的作物,但它们在栽培条件的要求方面非常相似,地理分布也很一致。但“稷”究竟指的是哪一种至今尚有争论。在北魏以前,汉晋的注释家大都释稷为粟,近代以来受李时珍《本草纲目》的影响,认稷为黍的看法占主流,也有学者仍坚持稷应为粟。本书作者引用的观点中将黍和粟归为稷的两个品种显然并非定论。读者可参考相关文献,如游修龄:《论黍和稷》,《农业考古》1984年第2期。
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[28]参见Zhongpei Zhang,“The Yangshao Period:Prosperity and the Transformation of Prehistoric Society,”in TheFormationofChineseCivilization:AnArcheologicalPerspective,ed.Sarah Allen(New Haven,CT and London,UK:Yale University Press,2005),68-71。
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