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40.J. M. Donohue, E. R. Berndt, M. Rosenthal, A. M. Epstein, and R. G.Frank, “Effects of pharmaceutical promotion on adherence to the treatment guidelines for depression,”Medical Care42,No. 12 (2004): 1176–1185.
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41.N. Tefft, “Mental health and employment: The SAD story.”Economicsand Human Biology10, No. 3 (2012): 242–255.
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42.E. A. Muth, J. T. Haskins, J. A. Moyer, G. E. Husbands, S. T. Nielsen,and E. B. Sigg, “Antidepressant biochemical profile of the novel bicyclic compound Wy- 45,030, an ethyl cyclohexanol derivative,”BiochemicalPharmacology35, No. 24 (1986): 4493–4497.
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43.A. Brayfield, ed., “Bupropion,”in Martindale: The Complete DrugReference(London, UK: Pharmaceutical Press, 2013), 107– 111; L. P. Dwoskin,Emerging Targets and Therapeutics in the Treatment of Psychostimulant Abuse(Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 2014), 177–216.
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44.F. Chen, M. B. Larsen, C. Sánchez, and O. Wiborg, “The (S)-enantiomer of (R,S)- citalopram, increases inhibitor binding to the human serotonin transporter by an allosteric mechanism. Comparison with other serotonin transporter inhibitors,”European Neuropsychopharmacology15, No.2 (2005): 193–198.
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45.S. P. Hamilton, “The promise of psychiatric pharmacogenomics,” Biological Psychiatry77, No. 1 (2015): 29–35.
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46.W. E. Evans and M. V. Relling, “Moving towards individualized medicine with pharmacogenomics,”Nature429, No. 6990 (2004): 464–468.
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47.在处理烟草使用的问题上还有很多方法。一种常用的替代品是伐尼克兰（varenicline），它是一种烟碱型受体部分激动剂，能够激活尼古丁受体（烟碱乙酰胆碱受体），但是强度不如尼古丁。通过刺激这种受体，它使尼古丁（类似丁丙诺啡对海洛因成瘾者）的愉悦效果缩短，并试图减少这种欲望。特定基因的靶向治疗，对于拥有这些特定基因的人来说，将会更有效。另一种戒烟的方法是采取所谓的尼古丁替代疗法（NRT），例如，尼古丁贴片或口香糖。与切断大脑对于尼古丁的反应通路不同，NRT会给予大脑可控剂量的尼古丁，能减少戒断症状的出现，同时降低欲望程度。
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48.World Health Organization, WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008
:The MPOWER Package(Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 2008).
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49.我们也简要介绍了有关营养学最新的研究领域，这些领域开创的疗法能根据个体基因型的不同采取不同的方案，以实现疗效的最大化。个体能直接处于最佳的“饮食环境”中，这一环境符合他们的遗传倾向，有利于其代谢脂肪和碳水化合物等。
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50.J. M. Fletcher, “Why have tobacco control policies stalled? Using genetic moderation to examine policy impacts,”PloS One7, No. 12 (2012)
:e50576.
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51.S. E. Black, P. J. Devereux, and K. Salvanes, “From the cradle to the labor market? The effect of birth weight on adult outcomes” (working paper w11796, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, 2005).
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52.See D. Conley and N. G. Bennett, “Is biology destiny? Birth weight and life chances,”American Sociological Review65, No. 3 (2000): 458–467.
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53.A. Iliadou, S. Cnattingius, and P. Lichtenstein, “Low birthweight and Type 2 diabetes: A study on 11 162 Swedish twins,”International Journalof Epidemiology33, No.5(2004): 948–953, http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/content/33/5/948.short; J. Strohmaier, J. van Dongen, G. Willemsen, D. R. Nyholt,G. Zhu, V. Codd, B. Novakovic, et al., “Low birth weight in MZ twins discordant for birth weight is associated with shorter telomere length and lower IQ, but not anxiety/depression in later life,”Twin Research and Human Genetics18, No. 02(2015): 198– 209, http://journals. cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9657965&fileId=S1832427415000031。
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54.C. J. Cook and J. M. Fletcher, “Understanding heterogeneity in the effects of birth weight on adult cognition and wages,”Journal of HealthEconomics41 (2015): 107– 116.
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55.虽然很难去整体评估一系列的干预措施，因为它们并不是随机对婴儿实施的，但是经济学家已经采用了一种称作回归间断点设计的技术去尝试得到一个评估。他们在普通医院进行了实测，将出生体重5.4磅记为低出生体重，5.6磅记为正常体重。因此，在出生体重差异很小的情况下，婴儿所接受的干预措施可能会有巨大差异，并且我们可以询问这些措施是否有利。有几位经济学家使用5.5磅作为低出生体重的临界值，他们发现，这些措施相对来说并不合理，因为受干预婴儿的结果与出生体重略高于5.5磅，因而不太可能获得额外服务和干预的婴儿并没有大的区别。D. Almond, J. J. Doyle Jr., A. E. Kowalski, and H. Williams, “Estimating marginal returns to medical care: Evidence from at- risk newborns” (working paper w14522, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA,2008). For follow- up discussion, see A. I. Barreca, M. Guldi, J. M. Lindo, and G. R. Waddell, “Saving babies? Revisiting the effect of very low birth weight classification,”Quarterly Journal of Economics126, No. 4 (2011): 2117– 2123.
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56.O. Thompson, “Economic background and educational attainment: The role of gene- environment interactions,”Journal of Human Resources49, No. 2(2014): 263– 294.
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57.R. Haveman and B. Wolfe, “The determinants of children’s attainments:A review of methods and findings,”Journal of Economic Literature33, no. 4(1995): 1829– 1878.
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58.D. Lee, J. Brooks- Gunn, S. S. McLanahan, D. Notterman, and I.Garfinkel, “The Great Recession, genetic sensitivity, and maternal harsh parenting,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences110, No. 34(2013): 13780– 13784, http://www. pnas.org/content/110/34 /13780.short.
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59.《经济适用法案》（ACA，即奥巴马医改）明确禁止利用成本效益分析来推动有关程序和治疗方法的决定，但是很多经济学家认为，这一禁止令等同于向制药和医疗器械公司开了空头支票，即使效益低下，他们仍然会继续开发昂贵的新疗法。ACA的未来修订可能会转向NICE风格，以便控制成本。
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结论 走向“基因统治”?
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1.或者“你很可能不喜欢吃芦笋”。
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2.此外，他们犯了一个常见的统计学错误：没有同时报告可能概率（而非发生概率）。比如，你得中风的概率是（100%之中的）1.2%，而不是1%——那么发生概率上升了20%，但这看起来就没那么疯狂。N.Eriksson, J. M. Macpherson, J. Y. Tung, L. S. Hon, B. Naughton, S. Saxonov, L.Avey, et al.,“Web-based, participant-driven studies yield novel genetic associations for common traits,”PLoS Genetics6, no. 6 (2010): e1000993.
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3.2013年11月22日，FDA发表了这项针对23andme个人基因组服务“23andme, Inc.,”的裁决，Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring,MD, http://www.fda.gov/iceci/enforcementactions/warningletters/2013/ucm376296.htm。
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4.“FDA permits marketing of first direct-to-consumer genetic carrier test for Bloom syndrome,” FDA News Release, U.S. Food and Drug Administration,Silver Spring, MD, February 23, 2015, http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm 435003.htm.
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