打字猴:1.70068715e+09
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1700687152 20  Young, D. et al.‘Environmental enrichment inhibits spontaneous apoptosis, prevents seizures and is neuroprotective’.Nature Medicine ,5,448-53(1999);另请参阅Johansson, B.B.‘Functional outcome in rats transferred to an enriched environment 15 days after focal brain ischemia’.Stroke ,27,324-6(1996).
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1700687154 21  Amaral, O. B.et al.‘Duration of environmental enrichment influences the magnitude and persistence of its behavioral effects on mice’.Physiology&Behavior ,93,388-94(2008).
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1700687156 22  似乎环境的丰富也可能有更微妙的影响。无论给予的物体是令人厌恶的、奖励性的还是中性的,生活在环境贫乏笼子里的水貂花更多时间与新颖的物体交往。也就是新近有了这些特权的水貂比之前就在丰富环境笼子里待着的水貂更快与这些物体建立关系。从这项观察研究中得出的结论是,在贫乏环境中长大的动物明显更“无聊”。我们确实需要小心,不要过度解释这些结果,不然会听到这样的警告:每当我们使用最适合人类行为方式的术语时,谨慎的做法是不要过于随便地使用这个术语。水貂不是人类,我们也不能在没有根据的情况下,把诸如无聊这样复杂的心理状态强加给它们。可以说,丰富环境本身就是一种全新的体验,它让单个成分的“新颖性”相形见绌,而且与之前的生活方式相比,经常接触新事物的动物也体现出了更大的差异性。然而,浅尝一下丰富的感觉可能还不如完全没有丰富的环境。由于无法参与积极的行为,有些被关在笼子里的动物表现出刻板行为:某种重复而毫无目的的动作,通常代表压力很大。对这些动物来说,丰富能够减少这些动作,但是当它们被安置在一个丰富的环境中时,比那些一直放在贫乏环境中的动物表现出更严重的刻板行为。Meagher, R.K.&Mason, G.J.‘Environmental enrichment reduces signs of boredom in caged mink’.PLoS One,7,e49180(2012).另请参阅 Latham, N.&Mason, G.‘Frustration and perseveration in stereotypic captive animals:is a taste of enrichment worse than none at all?’Behavioural Brain Research ,211,96-104(2010).
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1700687158 23  Mora, F.,Segovia, G.&del Arco, A.‘Aging, plasticity and environmental enrichment:structural changes and neurotransmitter dynamics in several areas of the brain’.Brain Research Review ,55,78-88(2007). Kozorovitskiy, Y.et al.‘Ex
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1700687160 perience induces structural and biochemical changes in the adult primate brain’.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ,102,17478-82(2005).
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1700687162 24  Kolb, B. Brain,Plasticity and Behaviour ,ch 1.Laurence Erlbaum Assoc(1995).
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1700687164 25  Greenfield, S. A.Mind Change:How Digital Technologies are Leaving Teeir Mark on Our Brains .(Random House,2014).
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1700687166 26  另外,在妊娠第28周和70周(即婴儿出生后第30周)之间,突触密度增加,并在8个月大时达到峰值,为6亿个,在10岁时趋于稳定,达到3亿个。Huttenlocher, P.et al.‘Synaptogenesis in human visual cortex-evidence for synapse elimination during normal development’.Neuroscience Letters ,33,247-52(1982).
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1700687168 27  Gogtay, N. et al.‘Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood’.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ,101,8174-9(2004).
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1700687170 28  同时,在“交汇关联”区域的细胞(那些皮层区域主要不是参与感觉或运动加工),例如前额叶皮层,会比诸如感觉皮层经历更长期的衰退。在感觉皮层,成长和衰退阶段的敏锐性被认为是感觉模式“关键时期”的基础,该术语表明,时间框架对于建立正确的通路是至关重要的。有趣的是,“白质”(也就是连接纤维)的体积在研究的整个过程中不断增加,这是由于髓鞘化(myelination)的增加——这种绝缘能改善神经传导,并解释多发性硬化症(一种破坏性的疾病)恶化时所造成的损害。
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1700687172 29  Maguire, E. A.et al.‘Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers’.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ,97,4398-403(2000).
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1700687174 30  Gaser, C.&Schlaug, G.‘Brain structures differ between musicians and non-musicians’.Journal of Neuroscience ,23,9240-5(2003).
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1700687176 31  Bengtsson, S. L.et al.‘Extensive piano practising has regionally specifc effects on white matter development’.Nature Neuroscience ,8,1148-50(2005).
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1700687178 32  Jäncke, L.et al.‘The architecture of the golfer’s brain’.PLoS One ,4,e4785(2009).
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1700687180 33  Park, I. S.et al.‘Experience-dependent plasticity of cerebellar vermis in basket-ball players’.Cerebellum ,8,334-9(2009).
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1700687182 34  Mechelli, A. et al.‘Neurolinguistics:structural plasticity in the bilingual brain’.Nature ,431,757(2004);另请参阅Stein, M.et al.‘Structural plasticity in the language system related to increased second-language profciency’.Cortex ,48,458-65(2012).
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1700687184 35  Draganski, B. et al.‘Neuroplasticity:changes in grey matter induced by training’.Nature,427,311-12(2004);另请参阅Driemeyer, J.et al.‘Changes in gray matter induced by learning-revisited’.PLoS One ,3,e2669(2008).
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1700687186 36  Pascual-Leone, A. et al.‘Modulation of muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills’.Journal of Neurophysiology ,74,1037-45(1995).
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1700687188 37  Bailey, C. H.&Kandel, E.R.‘Synaptic remodeling, synaptic growth and the storage of long-term memory in Aplysia’.Progress in Brain Research ,169,179-98(2008).
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1700687190 38  Ridley, M.Nature via Nurture:Genes, Experience and What Makes Us Human .(Harper Perennial,2004).
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1700687192 39  Greenfield,2014;另请参阅 Greenfield, S.A.You and Me:Tee Neuroscience of Identity .(Notting Hill Editions,2011).
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1700687194 40  Pittenger, C.&Kandel, E. R.‘In search of general mechanisms for long-lasting plasticity:Aplysia and the hippocampus’.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B:Biological Sciences ,358,757-63(2003);对于长时程增强效应(LTP)和长时程抑制(LTD)的基本解释见S.A.Greenfield,Tee Human Brain:A Guided Tour (Orion,1997);更加全面且更技术化的描述见D.Purves,Neuroscience (Sinauer Press,2011,5th edn).
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1700687196 41  Deidda, G.,Bozarth, I. F.&Cancedda, L.‘Modulation of GABAergic transmission in development and neurodevelopmental disorders:investigating physiology and pathology to gain therapeutic perspectives’.Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience ,8,119(2014).
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1700687198 42  Storer, K. P.&Reeke, G.N.‘γ-Aminobutyric acid receptor type A receptor potentiation reduces firing of neuronal assemblies in a computational cortical model’.Anesthesiology ,117,780-90(2012).
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