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43 Olds, J.&Milner, P.‘Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain’.Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology ,47,419-27(1954).
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44 多巴胺对前额叶皮层有抑制作用。请参阅Ferron, A.et al.‘Inhibitory infuence of the mesocortical dopaminergic system on spontaneous activity or excitatory response induced from the thalamic mediodorsal nucleus in the rat medial prefrontal cortex’.Brain Research ,302,257-65(1984).Gao, W.-J.,Wang, Y.&Goldman-Rakic, P.S.‘Dopamine modulation of perisomatic and peridendritic inhibition in prefrontal cortex’.Journal of Neuroscience ,23,1622-30(2003).Cole, M.W.&Schneider, W.‘The cognitive control network:integrated cortical regions with dissociable functions’.Neuroimage ,37,343-60(2007).Cole, M.W.,Pathak, S.&Schneider, W.‘Identifying the brain’s most globally connected regions’.NeuroImage ,49,3132-48(2010).Cools, R.&d’Esposito, M.‘Inverted-U-shaped dopamine actions on human working memory and cognitive control’.Biological Psychiatry ,69,e113-25(2011).多亏了这一抑制作用,多巴胺能够在三个不同水平上限制神经元集合的大小。第一,在单个神经元水平上,通过一种直接的调节作用,在特定的大脑区域即前额叶皮层上,对神经元产生有效的抑制。第二,通过全脑间接解剖系统:前额叶皮层所连接的脑区比其他任何区域都要多。因此,如果多巴胺抑制这一关键的脑区,尤其以人类大脑为例,那么大脑的整体组织功能将变得碎片化,因此大脑会不太可能形成任何超越正常解剖划分的神经元集合。第三,也是最后一点,在间接的行为水平上,多巴胺可能会使神经元集合的大小减小。众所周知,释放脑内多巴胺的苯丙胺类药物,对大脑整体具有刺激和兴奋的作用,导致过度亢奋。在这种状态下,当多巴胺水平很高时,有一种可能性会增加,过于活跃兴奋的人有更多机会即刻直接感知到周围的环境,而不会对某物或某人有长期沉思的“认知”过程。在前一个石头还没来得及激起全部的水波纹时,就寻求一种新的刺激,把一块新石头扔进水潭。正如我们所见,这将是一个高速竞争的世界,由于周转率高,因而神经元集合的大小会减小。
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45 与多巴胺类似效果的讨论请参阅Susanta Bandyopadhyay and John J.Hablitz(2007),‘Dopaminergic Modulation of Local Network Activity in Rat Prefrontal Cortex’,Journal of Neurophysiology :4120-28.
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46 Brown, R. T.&Wagner, A.R.‘Resistance to punishment and extinction following training with shock or nonreinforcement’.Journal of Experimental Psychology ,68,503-7(1964);另请参阅Gray, J.A.‘Fear, panic and anxiety:what’s in a name.Psychological Inquiry ,2,72-96(1991).
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47 Greenfield, S. A.Tee Private Life of the Brain:Emotions, Consciousness and the Secret of the Self .(Wiley,2000).
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48 http://www. channel4.com/news/laughing-gas-nitrous-oxide-legal-high-police-drugs-brick-lane-festivals
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49 阿片类药物本来是抑制性的,但是通常作用于抑制性通路,产生去抑制的作用。然而,这种兴奋作用会类似地通过去同步化,产生一种小神经元集合的状态。Charles, A.C.&Hales, T.G.‘From inhibition to excitation:func-tional effects of interaction between opioid receptors’.Life Sciences ,76,479-85(2004).
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50 Yau, S. et al.‘Physical exercise-induced adult neurogenesis:a good strategy to prevent cognitive decline in neurodegenerative diseases?’Biomedical Research International ,2014,403120(2014).
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51 Olson, A. K.et al‘Environmental enrichment and voluntary exercise massively increase neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus via dissociable pathways’.Hippocampus ,16,250-60(2006).
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52 Van Praag, H.,Kempermann, G.&Gage, F. H.‘Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus’.Nature Neuroscience ,2,266-70(1999).
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53 Begley, S.Tee Plastic Mind .(Constable,2009).
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54 He, S.-B. et al.‘Exercise intervention may prevent depression’.International Journal of Sports Medicine ,33,525-30(2012).
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55 Frodl, T.&O’Keane, V.‘How does the brain deal with cumulative stress?A review with focus on developmental stress, HPA axis function and hippocampal structure in humans’.Neurobiology of Disease ,52,24-37(2013).
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56 Cakır, B.et al.‘Stress-induced multiple organ damage in rats is ameliorated by the antioxidant and anxiolytic effects of regular exercise’.Cell Biochemistry and Function ,28,469-79(2010).Schoenfeld等人,于2013年,在正在奔跑的动物的海马体中发现了新的兴奋性和抑制性细胞;此外,奔跑中的动物在接触到压力源后,会经历更短的压力发作期:“奔跑动物的海马体与久立不动的动物大不相同,它们不仅有更多兴奋性神经元和突触,而且更容易激活抑制性神经元,可能是处于应激状态时,更容易抑制兴奋性神经元。”Schoenfeld T.J.et al.‘Physical exercise prevents stress-induced activation of granule neurons and enhances local inhibitory mechanisms in the dentate gyrus’.Journal of Neuroscience ,33(18):7770-7(2013).另一项有趣的研究表明,适度运动和安静休息有助于缓解未来的压力(Smith,2013)。虽然这两种方法都在短期内减轻了压力,但看情绪图片时,安静休息组被试比运动组更有压力。Smith, J.C.‘Effects of emotional exposure on state anxiety after acute exercise’.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise ,45(2):372-8(2013);以及Nakajima, S.et al.‘Regular voluntary exercise cures stress-induced impair-ment of cognitive function and cell proliferation accompanied by increases in cerebral IGF-1 and GST activity in mice’.Behavioural Brain Research ,211,178-84(2010)
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57 Nokia, M. et al.‘Learning to learn:theta oscillations predict new learning, which enhances related learning and neurogenesis’.PLoS One ,7,e31375(2012).
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58 Begley,2009.
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59 Devonshire, I. M.et al.‘Environmental enrichment differentially modifes specifc components of sensory-evoked activity in rat barrel cortex as revealed by simultaneous electrophysiological recordings and optical imaging in vivo’.Neuroscience ,170,662-9(2010).
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60 同上。
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61 相较麻醉大鼠,清醒大鼠的神经元集合的振幅更大,同时在空间范围上也更要大得多。Ferezou I, Bolea S.&Petersen C.C.‘Visualizing the cortical representation of whisker touch:voltage-sensitive dye imaging in freely moving mice’.Neuron ,50,617-29(2006).
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62 Greenfield,2011.
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第四章 早餐
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1 Reich, L. et al.‘A ventral visual stream reading center independent of visual experience’.Current Biology ,21,363-8(2011).
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2 Neville, H. J.&Lawson, D.‘Attention to central and peripheral visual space in a movement detection task:an event-related potential and behavioral study.II.Congenitally deaf adults’.Brain Research ,405,268-83(1987).
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3 Karns, C. M.,Dow, M.W.&Neville, H.J.‘Altered cross-modal processing in the primary auditory cortex of congenitally deaf adults:a visual-somatosensory fMRI study with a double-flash illusion’.Journal of Neuroscience ,32,9626-38(2012).
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4 Gougoux, F. et al.‘Neuropsychology:pitch discrimination in the early blind’.Nature ,430,309(2004).
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