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51 Marshall, B.&Azad, M.‘Q&A:Barry Marshall. A bold experiment’.Nature ,514,S6-7(2014).
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52 Sass, L. A.‘Schizophrenia, modernism and the“creative imagination”:on creativity and psychopathology’.Creativity Research Journal ,13,55-74(2001).
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第六章 家里的问题
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1 Sturman, D. A.&Moghaddam, B.‘The neurobiology of adolescence:changes in brain architecture, functional dynamics and behavioral tendencies’.Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews ,35,1704-12(2011).
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2 Rivers, S. E.,Reyna, V.F.&Mills, B.‘Risk-taking under the influence:a fuzzy-trace theory of emotion in adolescence’.Developmental Review ,28,107-44(2008).
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3 Sturman&Moghaddam,2011.
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4 Fuster, J.Tee Prefrontal Cortex .(Academic Press,2008).
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5 众所周知,前额叶皮层约占人类大脑的30%,而在我们最接近的近亲黑猩猩中却只有17%。然而,最近的研究表明,大量的分布式网络对人类所具有的独立能力来说是至关重要的,这也支持先前的一项研究,该研究发现人类大脑前额叶皮层中含有更多的白质:Barton, R.A.&Venditti, C.‘Human frontal lobes are not relatively large’.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ,110(22),9001-6(2013).Schoenemann, P.T.,Sheehan, M.J.&Glotzer, L.D.‘Prefrontal white matter volume is disproportionately larger in humans than in other primates’.Nature Neuroscience ,8(2),242-52(2005).McBride, T.,Arnold, S.E.&Gur, R.C.‘A comparative volumetric analysis of the prefrontal cortex in human and baboon MRI’.Brain, Behavior and Evolution ,54(3),159-66(1999).
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6 Tsujimoto, S.‘The prefrontal cortex:functional neural development during early childhood’.Neuroscientist ,14,345-58(2008).
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7 Alvarez, J. A.&Emory, E.‘Executive function and the frontal lobes:a meta-an-alytic review’.Neuropsychological Review ,16,17-42(2006).
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8 Sturman&Moghaddam,2011.
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9 Casey, B. J.,Getz, S.&Galvan, A.‘The adolescent brain’.Developmental Review ,28,62-77(2008).
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10 Chambers, R. A.,Taylor, J.R.&Potenza, M.N.‘Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence:a critical period of addiction vulnerability’.American Journal of Psychiatry ,160,1041-52(2003).
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11 Ferron, A. et al.‘Inhibitory influence of the mesocortical dopaminergic system on spontaneous activity or excitatory response induced from the thalamic mediodorsal nucleus in the rat medial prefrontal cortex’.Brain Research ,302,257-65(1984);另请参阅Gao, W.-J.,Wang, Y.&Goldman-Rakic, P.S.‘Dopamine modulation of perisomatic and peridendritic inhibition in prefrontal cortex’.Journal of Neuroscience ,23,1622-30(2003).
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12 Knobloch, H. S.&Grinevich, V.‘Evolution of oxytocin pathways in the brain of vertebrates’.Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience ,8,31(2014).
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13 Steinberg, L.‘A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking’.Developmental Review ,28,78-106(2008).
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14 Barch, D. M.‘The cognitive neuroscience of schizophrenia’.Annual Review of Clinical Psychology ,1,321-53(2005);另请参阅 Thoma, P.et al.‘Proverb comprehension impairments in schizophrenia are related to executive dysfunction’.Psychiatry Research ,170,132-9(2009).
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15 Cortiñas, M.et al.‘Reduced novelty-P3 associated with increased behavioral distractibility in schizophrenia’.Biological Psychology ,78,253-60(2008).
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16 Oltmanns, T. F.‘Selective attention in schizophrenic and manic psychoses:the effect of distraction on information processing’.Journal of Abnormal Psychology ,87,212-25(1978);另请参阅Parsons, B.D.et al.‘Lengthened temporal integration in schizophrenia’.Neuropsychologia ,51,372-6(2013).
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17 Strange, P. G.Brain Biochemistry and Brain Disorders .(Oxford University Press,1992);Sturman&Moghaddam,2011.
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18 支持这一长久以来的想法的证据非常明确:神经兴奋性药物,如苯丙胺,能增强大脑中多巴胺的释放,模拟出精神分裂症患者的精神病性症状。相反,抗精神病性药物会阻断多巴胺的活动,起到安神的作用,长期以来一直作为治疗精神分裂症的不二选择。然而,需要注意的是:就精神分裂症本身而言,多巴胺的过度影响并不像字面意义上所讲的,是因为产生了大量的神经递质分子,而是由于数量正常的多巴胺通过异常地作用于目标受体或通过其他一些大脑的异常处理而导致了多巴胺效应的放大。无论如何,诸如典型的精神分裂症患者所表现出的症状,这样一系列复杂的感觉和认知障碍,绝非用一个信号系统就可以简单地解释。然而,关键的一点是,大脑化学物质、这些化学物质的靶点以及神经元回路重组之间有着微妙的相互影响,而多巴胺在其中扮演着重要的角色(尽管不是唯一的角色),这最终构成了一个人的“心智”。如果确实如此的话,如果正如我们前面所说的,“理解”是从另一个角度看待某个事物的话,那么缺乏联系将会缺乏理解,特别是当涉及谚语中所体现的那些抽象概念时更是如此。此外,从更广泛的角度看,儿童和精神分裂症患者似乎都缺乏逻辑性,而他们的思维过程通常以破碎且怪异的理由为特点。这些看似不合理且令人感到诧异的联系,在广泛的自我表达载体中会表现得非常明显,这种奇怪表现在儿童绘画中便是不切实际的色彩组合,如将羊涂成紫色,或是胡乱堆砌出“单词沙拉”这种抽象的视觉模式,难以理解的词或短语的混合,这些在儿童的艺术作品或精神分裂症患者的诗歌中十分常见。Brisch, R.et al.‘The role of dopamine in schizophrenia from a neurobiological and evo-lutionary perspective:old-fashioned, but still in vogue’.Frontiers in Psychiatry ,5,47(2014).Kasanin, J.S.Language and Teought in Schizophrenia .(University of California Press,1944).Mujica-Parodi, L.R.,Malaspina, D.&Sackeim, H.A.‘Logical processing, affect and delusional thought in schizophrenia’.Harvard Review of Psychiatry ,8,73-83.Caplan, R.et al.‘Formal thought disorder in childhood onset schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder’.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry ,31,1103-14(1990).
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19 Gao, Wang&Goldman-Rakic,2003.
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20 Tsujimoto,2008;另请参阅Welsh, M.C.&Pennington, B.F.‘Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children:views from developmental psychology.Developmental Neuropsychology ,4,199-230(1988).
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21 Parsons et al.,2013.
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22 Callicott, J. H.et al.‘Physiological dysfunction of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia revisited’.Cerebral Cortex ,10,1078-92(2000).
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