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14 Mykletun, A. et al.‘Levels of anxiety and depression as predictors of mortality:the HUNT study’.British Journal of Psychiatry ,195,118-25(2009).
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15 Wulsin, L. R.&Singal, B.M.‘Do depressive symptoms increase the risk for the onset of coronary disease?A systematic quantitative review’.Psychosomatic Medicine ,65,201-10(2003).
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16 Ader, R.&Cohen, N.‘Behaviorally conditioned immunosuppression and murine systemic lupus erythematosus’. Science,215,1534-6(1982);另请参阅 Maier, S.F.,Watkins, L.R.&Fleshner, M.‘Psychoneuroimmunology.The interface between behavior, brain and immunity’.American Psychologist ,49,1004-17(1994).
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17 Hökfelt, T.et al.‘Coexistence of peptides and putative transmitters in neurons’.Advances in Biochemical Psychopharmacology ,22,1-23(1980).
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18 Hökfelt, T.et al.Neuropeptides-an overview.Neuropharmacology ,39,1337-56(2000);另请参阅 Hökfelt, T.et al.‘Some aspects on the anatomy and function of central cholecystokinin systems’.BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology ,91,382-6(2002);以及 Hökfelt, T.,Bartfai, T.&Bloom, F.‘Neuropeptides:opportunities for drug discovery’.Lancet Neurology ,2,463-72(2003);以及 Hökfelt, T.,Pernow, B.&Wahren, J.‘Substance P:a pioneer amongst neuro-peptides’.Journal of Internal Medicine ,249,27-40(2001).
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19 大多数文章对于给出确切的数字都非常犹豫。近期比较好的综述包括 Leng, G.&Ludwig, M.‘Neurotransmitters and peptides:whispered secrets and public announcements’.Journal of Physiology ,586,5625-32(2008).Van den Pol, A.N.‘Neuropeptide transmission in brain circuits’.Neuron ,76,98-115(2012).
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20 Greenfield, S. A.&Collins, T.F.T.‘A neuroscientific approach to consciousness’.Progress in Brain Research ,150,11-23(2005).
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第九章 明天
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1 尽管通常情况下人们在睡眠中不会有对时间的回顾性感知,但似乎在梦里也存在时间知觉(对时间持续的感知)。威廉·德门特(William Dement)用两项研究来证明睡梦中的时间与真实的时间是相似的。因为当人们做梦时,他们的眼睛会在眼皮下非常快速地运动着,德门特能够通过观察睡眠者的快速眼动来监测他们的睡眠并记录他们做梦的时长。在记录了这些数据后,德门特会叫醒睡眠者并让他们写下对最后一个梦的描述。他提出的假设是,与那些较短的梦相比,长时间的梦需要更多地词汇来描述。当对每个梦的报告中所包含的单词数与这个梦所持续的分钟数进行比较时,他发现梦越长,做梦者用来描述它的单词越多。在一个关联实验中,德门特叫醒那些正在做梦的人,询问他们感觉做的最后一个梦持续了多长时间。做梦者对于他们的梦持续了较长时间还是较短时间的感知,其正确率是83%。通过这些实验,德门特得出了睡梦中的时间与清醒状态下的时间几乎是相同的这一结论。在清醒梦中,时间感知似乎也是相同的。可是话又说回来,我们这里所测量的、时间在实际的流逝中所产生的时间感,与我们熟悉的、在入睡和觉醒之间所缺席的那种回顾性时间感是不同的。Dement, W.C.‘History of sleep medicine’.Neurologic Clinics ,23,945-65,v(2005).Bolz, B.‘How time passes in dreams.(2009).http://indianapublicme-dia.org/amomentofscience/time-passes-dreams/.Erlacher, D.et al.‘Time for actions in lucid dreams:effects of task modality, length and complexity’.Frontiers in Psychology ,4,1013(2013).
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2 Taylor, B. N.The International System of Units (SI ).(NIST,2001).
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3 Hughes, D. O.&Tautman, T.R.Time:Histories and Ethnologies .(Michigan University Press,1995).
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4 Gell, A.The Anthropology of Time:Cultural Constructions of Temporal Maps and Images (Berg,1992).
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5 Trigg, G.Encyclopedia of Applied Physics .(Wiley,2004).
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6 Grondin, S.‘Timing and time perception:a review of recent behavioral and neuroscience findings and theoretical directions’.Attention, Perception and Psychophysics ,72,561-82(2010).
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7 Tulving, E.‘Episodic memory:from mind to brain’.Annual Review of Psychology ,53,1-25(2002).
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8 最初匿名出版于The Alternative:A Study in Psychology .(London:Macmillan and Co.,1882).
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9 Alexander, I.,Cowey, A.&Walsh, V.‘The right parietal cortex and time perception:back to Critchley and the Zeitraffer phenomenon’.Cognitive Neuropsychology ,22,306-15(2005);另请参阅 Koch, G.et al.‘Underestimation of time perception after repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation’.Neurology ,60,1844-6(2003);以及Danckert, J.et al.‘Neglected time:impaired temporal perception of multisecond intervals in unilateral neglect’.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience ,19,1706-20(2007).
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10 Walsh, V.‘A theory of magnitude:common cortical metrics of time, space and quantity’.Trends in Cognitive Science ,7,483-8(2003);另请参阅Bueti, D.,Bahrami, B.&Walsh, V.‘Sensory and association cortex in time perception’.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience ,20,1054-62(2008).
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11 Tregellas, J. R.et al.‘Effect of task difficulty on the functional anatomy of temporal processing’.NeuroImage ,32,307-15(2006);另请参阅Lewis, P.A.&Miall, R.C.‘A right hemispheric prefrontal system for cognitive time measurement’.Behavioural Processes ,71,226-34(2006);以及Penney, T.B.&Vait-lingham, L.‘Imaging time’inPsychology of Time (ed.Grondin, S .)261-94(Binglet UK Emerald Group,2008 );以及Macar, F.&Vidal, F.‘Timing processes:an outline of behavioural and neural indices not systematically considered in timing models’.Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology,63,227-39 (2009 ).
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12 Mackintosh, N. J.Animal Learning and Cognition .(Academic Press,1994);另请参阅 Jaldow, E.J.,Oakley, D.A.&Davey, G.C.L.‘Performance of de-corticated rats on fixed interval and fixed time schedules’.European Journal of Neuroscience ,1,461-70(1989).
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13 在墨西哥神经生物学研究所的雨果·麦钱特(Hugo Merchant),德博拉·哈灵顿(Deborah Harrington)以及沃伦·梅克(Warren Meck)已经通过猴子的单细胞记录研究识别出时间知觉所涉及的复杂的神经网络,并且强调一个关键的神经回路与皮层——丘脑——基底神经节相关联。他们认为这种带有分布式网络的“时间中枢”可以解释间隔调整(interval tuning)的抽象特征,以及时间幻觉和内部时间感,并且这种建立在大脑核心时间机制中的互相连接,目的是为了提供一种保护性的冗余,以此来对抗损伤、疾病或衰老。Merchant, H.,Harrington, D.L.&Meck, W.H.‘Neural basis of the perception and estimation of time’.Annual Review of Neuroscience ,36,313-36(2013).
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14 Grondin,2010;see also Eagleman, D. M.‘Human time perception and its illusions’.Current Opinion in Neurobiology ,18,131-6(2008).
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15 Eagleman,2008.
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16 Morrone, M. C.,Ross, J.&Burr, D.‘Saccadic eye movements cause compression of time as well as space’.Nature and Neuroscience ,8,950-4(2005).
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17 New, J. J.&Scholl, B.J.‘Subjective time dilation:spatially local, object-based, or a global visual experience?’Journal of Vision ,9,4,1-11(2009).
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