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[70] 为征服领土,征服者必须以有意义的方式控制领土。格劳秀斯要求以永久性防御工事来保卫被征服领土。他用汉尼拔(Hannibal)征服罗马时采用的战略来说明纸上征服的无效问题。格劳秀斯称,汉尼拔对罗马城外领土的控制是如此之弱,以至于他所占领的土地在他占领前后竟然以同样的价格出售。DJB,3.6.4.1。
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[71] 他们是否有能力保住被征服领土则是另一回事。关于帝国过度扩张的主题,请参阅 Paul Kennedy,The Rise and Fall of Great Powers (New York:Random House,1989)。
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[72]DJB,3.8.4.1;Vattel,The Law of Nations,3.13.199.
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[73] Anthony Disney,Twilight of the Pepper Empire:Portuguese Trade in Southwest India in the Early Seventeenth Century (Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1978),71-72.
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[74] Doris Graber,The Development of the Law of Belligerent Occupation:1863-1914 (New York:Columbia University Press,1949),37.
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[75] “Arc de Triomphe”是法语的凯旋门,“Triumphbogen”是德语的凯旋门。——译者注
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[76] 征服也不同于剥夺国格(“debellation”,拉丁文是“debellatio”)。在剥夺国格情形下,失败是如此彻底,以至于一方失去了统治和保护自身的能力——“bellum”在拉丁语中意味着“战争”,因此当一方在战争中完全被征服后,它就是被剥夺国格了。在征服情形下,一个国家从另一个国家夺取领土;在剥夺国格情形下,一个国家摧毁另一个国家。关于剥夺国格的讨论,请参阅Ernst Feilchenfeld,The International Economic Law of Belligerent Occupation (Washington,DC:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,1942);Eyal Benvenisti,The International Law of Occupation,2nd ed. (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2012),161-64。
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[77]DJB,3.20.49.2. 1945年,德国和日本接受无条件投降。
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[78] Xenophon,Cyropaedia:The Education of Cyrus,trans. Henry Graham Dakyns (London:J. M. Dent & Sons,1914),240.
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[79] “国际法”这个术语由律师、哲学家杰米里·边沁(Jeremy Bentham)在1780年创造出来。参见Jeremy Bentham,An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation,eds. J. H. Burns and H. L. A. Hart (London:Athlone Press,1970),296 and n. x(“必须承认,‘国际的’这个词是个新词”)。
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[80]DJB,2.22.8.
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[81]DJB,2.22.12.
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[82]DJB,2.22.9.
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[83] Bartolome de las Casas,A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies,trans. Nigel Griffin (London:Penguin,1992).
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[84] 关于西班牙王国对人道主义主张接受过程的探讨,参见Tuck,The Rights of War and Peace,72-75;安东尼·帕戈登(Anthony Pagden)为维多利亚作序之 Vitoria:Political Writings,eds. Anthony Pagden and Jeremy Lawrance (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1991),xxvii。西班牙人征服的最初理由源于教宗的捐赠和印第安人自然奴役观。维多利亚在他的《美国印第安人》(“On the American Indians”)一文中,将这些观点去合法化了。参见Vitoria,Political Writings,Question 1 and Question 2,Article 2。关于对这些观点的延伸讨论,请参阅Anthony Pagden,The Fall of Natural Man:The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1986);Hugh Thomas,The Golden Age of Charles V (London:Allen Lane,2010)。
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[85] Vitoria,“On the American Indians” Question 3,Article 5;Francisco de Vitoria,“On Dietary Laws,or Self-Restraint” in Vitoria,Political Writings,Question 1,Article 5,Fifth Conclusion. 维多利亚特别指出,人道主义干预并没有自动制裁征服,但他补充说:“如果除了通过为其确立基督教君主来保护他们,没有其他的方法来确保安全的话,那么这种做法也是合法的,而且只要确保这一目标能够实现,这么做就是必须的。”参阅Francisco de Vitoria,“On Dietary Laws,or self-Restraint” Question 1,Article 5,Sixth Conclusion。
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[86] Alberico Gentili,De Jure Belli Libri Tres,trans. John C. Rolfe (Oxford:Clarendon Press,1933),1.25.198.
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[87]Johnson v. M’Intosh,21 U.S. 543,588 (1823).
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[88]Johnson v. M’Intosh,21 U.S. 543,588 (1823).
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[89]Johnson v. M’Intosh,21 U.S. 574.
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[90] Thomas Jefferson,A Summary View of the Rights of British America (Williamsburg,VA:Clementina Rind,1774),6.
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[91] Joel N. Eno,“The Puritans and the Indian Lands,” The Magazine of History:With Notes and Queries,3 (1906),274-75.
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[92] Yasuhide Kawashima,Puritan Justice and the Indian:White Man’s Law in Massachusetts,1630-1763 (Middletown,CT:Wesleyan University Press,1986),51.
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[93] Eric Kades,“History and Interpretation of the Great Case of Johnson v. M’Intosh,” Law and History Review 19,no. 1 (2001):74.
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[94] Felix S. Cohen,“Original Indian Title,” Minnesota Law Review 32 (1947),36,45-46.
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