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19.It is important to distinguish licensure from certification in this regard.Many occupations have certification; practitioners can become certified by passing an exam or by meeting other requirements.Certification also serves as a means to verify the quality and safety of service that a practitioner provides.Licensure goes beyond certification by limiting who can practice the occupation.
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20.Wanchek, “Dental Hygiene Regulation.”
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21.Kleiner with Kyoung Won Park, Stages of Occupational Regulation, ch..6.
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22.Kleiner and Kudrle, “Does Regulation Affect Economic Outcomes?”
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23.Kleiner, Licensing Occupations; Kleiner, Stages of Occupational Regulation.
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24.Kleiner,“Occupational Licensing”; Kleiner and Krueger, “Analyzing the Extent.”
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25.Liang and Ogur, “Restrictions on Dental Auxiliaries.”
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26.Kleiner et al., “Relaxing Occupational Licensing Requirements.”
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27.Wanchek, “Dental Hygiene Regulation.”
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28.Humphris,Kleiner, and Koumenta, “How Does Government Regulate Occupations?”
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29.Using National Income and Product Accounts (NIPA) and Current Population Survey (CPS) data, there were approximately 13.5 million nonphysician health care workers in 2008.Assuming 76 percent were subject to licensing, licensing raised wages 15 percent, and the constant output labor demand elasticity was 0.3, this yields 13.5 ×.76 ×.15 ×0.3 =0.5 million lost jobs.This estimate does not include limitations on jobs arising from restricted access to education or limitations on scope of practice.
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30.See Lynn, “New Data.” During this period my father was a physical metallurgist at one large steel company where he developed a new, advantageous rolling technology.Once the technology was proven at a pilot plant, the company chose to make a quick buck by selling the technology to a German steel firm rather than adopting the process itself.
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31.Lenway, Morck, and Yeung, “Rent Seeking.”
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32.ArcelorMittal, “Steel Statistics,” http://www.transfirmingarcelfirmittalusa.com /USASteelIndustry/AmericasSteelIndustryStatistics.aspx.
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33.Moore, “Rise and Fall.”
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34.Lindsey, Griswold, and Lukas, “Steel ‘Crisis.’ ”
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35.Today, the Steel Manufacturers Association, the trade group representing minimills, calls for limits on China’s unfair trade practices.See Steel Manufacturers Association, “Public Policy Statement 2013–2014,” http://www.steelnet.org /docs/public_policy.pdf.
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36.House Ways and Means, Subcommittee on Trade, “Problems of the U.S.Steel Industry,” Serial 98-93, 1984, p.286.
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37.Barringer and Pierce, “Paying the Price.”
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38.Schorsch, “Why Minimills Give the U.S.Huge Advantages in Steel.”
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第十章 采购知识
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1.Generally, economists recognize that private firms in competitive markets tend to underinvest in new technologies.This is because firms typically do not capture all of the value that new technologies bring to society and are thus not willing to invest as much as is socially optimal.This means that society can typically boost economic growth by providing additional incentives that encourage private firms to innovate.
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2.Lerner, Boulevard of Broken Dreams.
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3.Ruttan, Is War Necessary for Economic Growth?
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4.Thomson, “Government and Innovation.”
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