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当然,政府作为保险人并非只应对宏观经济冲击,还要缓解异质性风险。所以20世纪上半叶的危机和战争推动了社会保障、公共医疗和家庭补贴的发展,以保证最低收入水平,防范疾病等风险。但从20世纪80年代开始,经济自由化与贸易全球化给发达国家带来了尖锐的新型风险——失业风险。丹麦在20世纪90年代引入弹性保障模式,希望一方面应对经济自由主义和创新带来的挑战,另一方面保护人们免受失业的负面影响。这种模式可以继续改进,包括鼓励终身职业培训,防止人们滑落到贫困线之下。负税收可以成为缓解失业风险的另一种办法,该风险对季节性或临时性员工来说尤为突出。
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在下一章,我们将探讨政府过分强势或无所不在的危险,以及政府失灵和功能不足的问题。我们将重点分析制衡机制和其他预防措施,以减轻行政部门权力滥用的风险。更具体的内容还包括,媒体、工会、非营利组织乃至各种类型的民间社会组织如何能最终保证权力的分立,以及对行政部门的监督。
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[1]Max Weber,“Politics as a Vocation” (1918 -1919), inTheVocationLectures,ed. David Owen and Tracy B. Strong, trans. Rodney Livingstone(Indianapolis
:Hackett, 2004),33.
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[2]本书第2章对此进程做了详细阐述。
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[3]Montesquieu,Del’espritdeslois(Geneva: Barrillot & fils, 1748); Montesquieu,TheSpiritoftheLaws, ed. and trans. Anne M. Cohler, Basia Carolyn Miller, and Harold Samuel Stone(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
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[4]Timothy Besley and Torsten Persson,“Fragile States and Development Policy,”Journal of the European Economic Association9, no. 3(2011)
:371 -398.
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[5]Timothy Besley,“State Capacity and Economic Development,” Sir Arthur Lewis Distinguished Lecture, University of the West Indies, January 25,2019.
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[6]Arthur Lewis,“The Slowing Down of the Engine of Growth,” Nobel Prize Lecture,December 8,1979.
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[7]J. A. Schumpeter,DieKrisedesSteuerstaats(Austria: Leuschner and Lubensky,1918). Translated as J. A. Schumpeter,“The Crisis of the Tax State,” in Schumpeter,The Economics and Sociology of Capitalism, ed. Richard Swedberg,99 -140(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
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[8]Tim Besley and Torsten Persson,“Taxation and Development,” inHandbookofPublicEconomics, ed. A. J. Auerbach, R. Chetty, M. Feldstein, and E. Saez,vol. 5,51 -110(Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2013).样本中的国家包括
:阿根廷、澳大利亚、巴西、加拿大、智利、哥伦比亚、丹麦、芬兰、爱尔兰、日本、墨西哥、荷兰、新西兰、挪威、瑞典、瑞士、英国和美国。数据来自Brian Mitchell,InternationalHistoricalStatistics, 3 vols. (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).
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[9]本节的内容基于如下研究: Philippe Aghion, Xavier Jaravel, Torsten Persson,and Dorothée Rouzet,“Education and Military Rivalry,”JournaloftheEuropeanEconomicAssociation17, no. 2(2019)
:376 -412.
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[10]Charles Tilly,The Formation of National States in Western Europe(Princeton
:Princeton University Press, 1975); Besley and Persson,“Fragile States and Development Policy.”
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[11]拿破仑一世在耶拿战役击败普鲁士,促使普鲁士国王大规模投资学校、大学和基础设施建设,特别是重用了洪堡兄弟。
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[12]Eugen Weber,Peasants into Frenchmen
:The Modernization of Rural France,1870 -1914(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976).
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[13]Aghion, Jaravel, Persson, and Rouzet,“Education and Military Rivalry.”
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[14]Lyndon B. Johnson,The Vantage Point
:Perspectives of the Presidency,1963-1969(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971).
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[15]Pierre Azoulay, Erica Fuchs, Anna P. Goldstein, and Michael Kearney,“Funding Breakthrough Research: Promises and Challenges of the ‘ ARPA Model,’”Innovation Policy and the Economy19, no. 1(2019):69 -96.
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[16]自上而下方式代表的程序是,政府作为决策者,把决策指示给分散的行为人。相反,自下而上的方式是指,政府确立大致的政策方向,让地方行为人决定如何实施。
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[17]1878—1890年间通过了几项反社会主义的法律。
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[18]Sir William Henry Beveridge,SocialInsuranceandAlliedServices(New York
:Macmillan, 1942).
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[19]National Council of the Resistance,“Programme du Conseil national de la Résistance,” March 15,1944.
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[20]工会在全国抵抗委员会中有相当多代表,法国总工会(General Confederation of Labour, CGT)在1945年有400万会员。
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[21]See Pierre Rosanvallon,LaCrisedel’Etat-providence(Paris: Seuil, in collaboration with Points Politique, 1981).
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[22]电影《阿达伦31》讲述过这一悲剧,参见Bo Widerberg, dir. ,Adalen31,Svensk Filmindustri, 1969.
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[23]Yuval Noah Harari,21Lessonsforthe21stCentury(New York: Spiegel &Grau, 2018).
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