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[24]Herman P. Miller,Income Distribution in the United States (Washington,D.C.: Bureau of the Census,1966),quote p. 2。正如Herman展示的那样,国家人口普查局在60年代以前的数据表明,不平等程度下降的趋势终止于1944年。
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[25]纳税最高的1%人群每年都在变化,然而向下的流动性非常有限。在1987年1%最高收入人群里,那些当时处于35—40岁年龄段的人在20年后还有24%的人属于1%最高收入人群,70%的人属于10%最高收入人群。参见Table 1 in Gerald Auten,Geoffrey Gee,and Nicholas Turner,“Income Inequality,Mobility,and Turnover at the Top in the US,1987-2010,”American Economic Review 103 (2013): 168-172。
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[26]Robert M. Solow,“Income Inequality since the War,” in Ralph E. Freeman,ed.,Postwar Economic Trends in the United States (New York: Harper and Brothers,1960),quote p. 135.
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[27]假设税率固定不变,每个人获得同样的福利,可以在绝大多数收入区间里大致估算税收/转移体系(这个假设是一个合理的第一近似值)。由总收入Y可以得到净收入(1-t)Y+A,其中t代表税率,A代表每个人获得的福利(我们可以将它看作个人收入税的免税额)。由于所有人的A值都相同,所以可支配收入的基尼系数等于(1-t)乘以市场收入(Y)的基尼系数,再除以平均可支配收入与平均市场收入之比。这样的话,如果政府在产品和服务(如医疗、教育和国防等)方面的支出消耗了20%的税收,那么后者的比例为80%。进一步假设市场收入的基尼系数是50%,那么税率上调Δt后,可支配收入基尼系数的下降幅度相当于0.5乘以Δt再除以0.8。如果反向推导这种关系,那么要想将可支配收入的基尼系数降到预期目标,税率就要上调到原来的0.8/0.5 (=1.6)倍。
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[28]若想了解OECD国家收入不平等情况的综述,请参见Andrea Brandolini and Timothy M. Smeeding,“Income Inequality in Richer and OECD Countries,” in Salverda,Nolan,and Smeeding,eds.,The Oxford Handbook of Economic Inequality,71-100; Salvatore Morelli,Timothy M. Smeeding,and Jeffrey Thompson,“Post-1970 Trends in Within-Country Inequality and Poverty,” in Atkinson and Bourguignon,eds.,Handbook of Income Distribution,vol. 2; and OECD,Divided We Stand: Why Inequality Keeps Rising (Paris: OECD,2011)。
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[29]Martin S. Feldstein,“Rethinking Social Insurance,” American Economic Review 95 (2005): 1-24,quote p. 12.
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[30]Brian Abel-Smith and Peter Townsend,The Poor and the Poorest (London: G.Bell,1965); and Anthony B. Atkinson,Poverty in Britain and the Reform of Social Security (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1969).
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[31]欧洲委员会的网站上介绍了《欧盟2020战略》:http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/targets/eu-targets/;另外请参见Anthony B. Atkinson and Eric Marlier,“Living Conditions in Europe and the Europe 2020 Agenda,” in Anthony B. Atkinson and Eric Marlier,eds.,Income and Living Conditions in Europe (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union,2010),21-35。
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[32]欧洲的贫困线定为均等化家庭可支配收入中位数的60%,因此它会随着收入中位数上下浮动。
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[33]若想了解《欧盟2020战略》的中期情况,请参见Hugh Frazer et al.,“Putting the Fight against Poverty and Social Exclusion at the Heart of the EU Agenda: A Contribution to the Mid-Term Review of the Europe 2020 Strategy,” OSE Paper 15 (2014),Observatoire Social Européen,Brussels。
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[34]Social Protection Committee,Social Europe: Many Ways,One Objective (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union,2014),quote p.7。
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[35]John Donne,Meditations XVII,Devotions upon Emergent Occasions (London: Nonesuch Press,1962),quote P.538.Richard H. Tawney,“Poverty as an Industrial Problem,” in Memoranda on the Problems of Poverty (London: William Morris Press,1913).
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[36]Adam Smith,An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London: Routledge,1903,first published 1776),quote p. 78. Milton Friedman and Simon Kuznets,Income from Indepen dent Professional Practice (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research,1945),quote p.84.
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[37]若了解更多关于等价尺度的信息,请参见Anthony B. Atkinson,Bea Cantillon,Eric Marlier,and Brian Nolan,Social Indicators (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2002),98-101。
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[38]See Rolf Aaberge,Audun Langrgen,and Petter Lindgren,“The Distributional Impact of Public Services in European Countries,” Statistics Norway Research Department Discussion Paper 746 (2013),http://www.ssb.no/en/forskning/discussion-papers/_attachment/123883?_ts=13f50d54ab8.
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[39]这些数据来源于世界顶级收入数据库(World Top Incomes Database,WTID): http://topincomes.gmond.parisschoolofeconomics.eu/.
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[40]George Eliot,Silas Marner: The Weaver of Raveloe (Edinburgh: William Blackwood,1861).
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[41]Bill Gates,“Why Inequality Matters,” review of Piketty,Capital in the Twenty-First Century (2014),http://www.gatesnotes.com/Books/Why-Inequality-Matters-Capital-in-21st-Century-Review.
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[42]Dirk Krueger and Fabrizio Perri,“Does Income Inequality Lead to Consumption Inequality?” Review of Economic Studies 73 (2006): 163-193,quote p. 163. Dale Jorgenson,“Did We Lose the War on Poverty?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 12 (1998): 79-96,quote p. 79. Bruce D. Meyer and James X. Sullivan,“Winning the War: Poverty from the Great Society to the Great Recession,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity (Fall 2012): 163-193,quote p. 163.
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[43]Orazio Attanasio,Erik Hurst,and Luigi Pistaferri,“The Evolution of Income,Consumption,and Leisure Inequality in the US,1980-2010,” NBER Working Paper No. 17982,April 2012,http://papers.nber.org/tmp/69610-w17982.pdf.
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[44]Mark A. Aguiar and Mark Bils,“Has Consumption Inequality Mirrored Income Inequality?” NBER Working Paper No. 16807,http://papers.nber.org/tmp/69610-w17982.pdf,quote p. 2.
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[45]John Sabelhaus et al.,“Is the Consumer Expenditure Survey Representative by Income?” Finance and Economics Discussion Series,Divisions of Research & Statistics and Monetary Affairs,Federal Reserve Board,Washington,D.C.
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[46]Jonathan D. Fisher,David S. Johnson,and Timothy M. Smeeding,“Measuring the Trends in Inequality of Individuals and Families: Income and Consumption,” American Economic Review,Papers and Proceedings 103 (2013): 184-188,quote p. 187.
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[47]B. Seebohm Rowntree,Poverty: A Study of Town Life (London: Longmans,Green and Co.,1901,new ed. 1922),quote p. 117.
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[48]Mollie Orshansky,“Counting the Poor: Another Look at the Poverty Profile,” Social Security Bulletin 28 (1965): 3-29,Table E on p. 28.
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