打字猴:1.704628541e+09
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1704628542 [60]美国人口普查局,Income,Poverty,and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2013,表4。
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1704628544 [61]Sophie Ponthieux and Dominique Meurs,“Gender Inequality,” in Atkinson and Bourguignon,eds.,Handbook of Income Distribution,vol. 2A,quote p. 1008.
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1704628546 [62]关于美国大学生性别比的数据来源于Claudia Goldin,Lawrence F. Katz,and Iyana Kuziemko,“The Homecoming of American College Women: The Reversal of the College Gender Gap,”Journal of Economic Perspectives 20(4): 133-156;OECD国家的数据来源于Ponthieux and Meurs,“Gender Inequality”。
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1704628548 [63]Doris Weichselbaumer and Rudolf Winter-Ebmer,“A Meta-Analysis of the International Gender Wage Gap,” Journal of Economic Surveys 19: 479-511,quote p. 508.
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1704628550 [64]Stephen P. Jenkins,Changing Fortunes (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2011),quote pp. 360 and 361.
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1704628552 [65]Peter Gottschalk and Robert Moffitt,“The Rising Instability of U.S. Earnings,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 23 (2009): 3-24.
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1704628554 [66]Wojciech Kopczuk,Emmanuel Saez,and Jae Song,“Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data since 1937,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 125 (2010): 91-128,quote p. 91.
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1704628556 [67]Rebecca M. Blank,Changing Inequality (Berkeley: University of California Press,2011),quote p. 93.
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1704628558 [68]它使用的数学公式为δ + εg,其中δ表示纯粹的贴现率,ε表示消费边际价值的弹性,g表示每人的消费增长率。
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1704628560 第2章 以史为鉴
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1704628562 [1]Simon Kuznets,“Economic Growth and Income Inequality,” American Economic Review 44 (1954): 1-28.
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1704628564 [2]Arthur Sakamoto,Hyeyoung Woo,Isao Takei,and Yoichi Murase,“CulturalConstraints on Rising Income Inequality: A U.S.-Japan Comparison,” Journalof Economic Inequality 10 (2012): 565-581; Dierk Herzer and SebastianVollmer,“Inequality and Growth: Evidence from Panel Cointegration,”Journalof Economic Inequality 10 (2012): 489-503。第一篇文章参考了很多数据来源,但使用的数据与LIS Key Statistics一致(参见前文)。第二篇文章的数据来源于得克萨斯大学的“不平等项目”(Inequality Project)。关于该项目的情况,请参见James K. Galbraith,“Inequality,Unemployment andGrowth: New Measures for Old Controversies,” Journal of Economic Inequality7 (2009): 189-206。
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1704628566 [3]对图中数据的调整基于官方估算,即不平等上升中有一半是由方法变化引起的。David H. Weinberg,“A BriefLook at Postwar U.S. Income Inequality,” Current Population Reports,P60-191,U.S. Census Bureau,Washington,D.C.,footnote 3。另外,请参见Richard V. Burkhauser et al.,“Recent Trends in Top Income Shares in the USA: Reconciling Estimates from March CPS and IRS Tax Return Data,” Review of Economicsand Statistics 94 (2012): 371-388。
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1704628568 [4]如果用座机进行调查,那么会出现同样的问题。皮尤研究中心发现,“国家卫生统计中心对电话覆盖率的最新估算表明,四分之一的美国家庭只有手机,无法用座机联系他们。只使用手机而不使用座机的成年人从人口结构和政见上都不同于那些使用座机的家庭。因此,只对使用座机的家庭抽样来调查选举民意可能会产生偏差。”http://www.pewresearch.org/2010/10/13/cell-phones-and-election-polls-an-update/。
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1704628570 [5]Jesse Bricker et al.,“Changes in U.S. Family Finances from 2010 to 2013: Evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances,” Federal Reserve Bulletin 100(2014): 1-41,quote p. 1.
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1704628572 [6]Maria L. Mattonetti,“European Household Income by Groups of Households,”Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers (Luxembourg: Publications Officeof the European Union,2013),表3。这个模式与之前将调查数据和国民核算进行对比的模式相似,如Anthony B. Atkinson,Lee Rainwater,and Timothy M. Smeeding,Income Distribution in OECD Countries(Paris: OECD,1995),表3.7。
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1704628574 [7]要想更全面地了解利用收入所得税数据估算最高收入比重的讨论,请参见Anthony B. Atkinson,Thomas Piketty,and Emmanuel Saez,“TopIncomes in the Long Run of History,”Journal of Economic Literature 49 (2011):3-71; and Andrew Leigh,“Top Incomes,” in Wiemer Salverda,Brian Nolan,and Timothy M. Smeeding,eds.,The Oxford Handbook of Economic Inequality(Oxford: Oxford University Press,2009): 150-174。
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1704628576 [8]这对国别比较的影响并不明显。如果像图1.1和图1.2的估算结果那样,所有纳税单位都使用同样的权重,那么从基于夫妻的纳税体系转移到基于个人的纳税体系带来的影响取决于共同收入分配。假如所有富人都没有结婚或他们的配偶没有收入,那么转向基于个人的税收体系会提升最高收入的比重。纳税单位的总量增加意味着收入分配的整个区间被拉长了,x%最高收入在区间里的位置要比原来低。在另一方面,如果最富裕人群的纳税单位是夫妻,且他们平分自己的收入,那么改变税收体系会降低最高收入的比重。
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1704628578 [9]参见本文中的国别研究:Atkinson and Piketty,“Top In comes”; and Anthony B. Atkinson and Thomas Piketty,eds.,Top In comes: A Global Perspective (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2010)。
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1704628580 [10]如果想了解关于英国的“新收入调查”(“工时和薪资年度调查”的前身)与“家庭支出调查”(“家庭资源调查”的前身)之间过时但详尽的比较,请参见Anthony B. Atkinson,John Micklewright,and Nicholas H. Stern,“Comparison ofthe FES and New Earnings Survey 1971-1977,” in Anthony B. Atkinson andHolly Sutherland,eds.,Tax-Benefit Models (London: STICERD,LSE,1988),154-222。
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1704628582 [11]Thomas Piketty等人根据收集到的个人房产数据完成了一项非常出色的研究,请参见Thomas Piketty,Gilles Postel-Vinay,and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal,“Wealth Concentration in a Developing Economy: Paris and France,1807-1994,” American Economic Review 96 (2006): 236-256。他们收集了1807-1902年间,每十个特定年份里在巴黎去世的人的信息。
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1704628584 [12]Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek,Statistiek der Rijksfinancin 1936 (’s Gravenhage: Drukkerij Albani,1936),Table XV.
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1704628586 [13]Thomas Piketty开创了这条成果颇丰的研究线路。Thomas Piketty,“Income Inequality in France,1901-1998,” Journal of Political Economy 111 (2003): 1004-1042,and Les hauts revenus en France au XX e siècle (Paris: Bernard Grasset,2001)。
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1704628588 [14]Zvi Griliches,“Economic Data Issues,” in Zvi Griliches and Michael D. Intriligator,eds.,Handbook of Econometrics (Amsterdam: Elsevier,1986),vol. 3,quote p. 1509.
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1704628590 [15]Statistics Canada,Income in Canada 2005,Catalogue 75-202-XIE (Ottawa: Statistics Canada,2007),p. 125.
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