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113 Dobyns revises figures: Dobyns 1983
:42. The new figure was for North America only.
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113 Henige bio, critiques: Interview, Henige; Henige 1998 (bio, 4-5“Suspect,”314); 1978b (Hispaniola); Osborne 1998.
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114 “你总是能听到”:访谈与电邮,斯蒂法姆。某些群体对前哥伦布时代美洲无人(或几乎无人)居住这种观点的下意识的坚持令人吃惊。直至1986年,美国历史协会的前主席伯纳德·贝林(Bernard Bailyn)还出版了一本名曰《英属北美人居史引论》(The Peopling of British North America: An Introduction)的著作(Bailyn 1986)。这本书讲的是英国的移民。但书名表明的是,在欧洲人到来之前,这片土地上根本没有人居住。而印第安人在全书的文本里也的确难见踪迹。
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114 “crater”: Interview,Wilson; Wilson 1999.
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4. 常见问题
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115 德·索托:Duncan 1995;Mena 1930
:264-66(查尔库奇马)。根据汉明的观察,德·索托“和任何其他西班牙征服者一样残暴。在向卡哈马卡进军途中,他(麾下的)军队强奸了卡哈的年长妇女(原文为mamaconas,大意为修女——笔者注)。一些当代作者认为他比其同道更为人性化,这种观点是毫不恰当的”(Hemming 2004
:555)。
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115 De Soto expedition: The numbers of men and animals differ somewhat in different accounts. I use Ramenofsky 1987
:59. The basic sources are Garcilaso de la Vega, 1951,”Gentleman of Elvas“1922, and its apparent predecessor, Fernández de Biedma 1922. Other documents are collected in Clayton, Knight, and Moore eds. 1993. The state of scholarly knowledge is assayed in Galloway ed. 1997. Popular accounts include Wilson 1999
:134-37; Morgan 1993
:72-75; Parkman 1983 (vol.1):28-31.
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116 Hudson’s reconstruction of route: Interview, Hudson; Hudson 1993. For a fierce debate on the reliability of these reconstructions, see Henige 1993; Hudson, DePratter, and Smith 1993; Hudson et al. 1994.
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116 De Soto’s passage over Mississippi: “Gentleman of Elvas”1922 (vol. 1)
:112-17 (all quotes,113); Fernández de Biedma 1922 (vol. 2)
:25-28. See also Rollings 1995
:39-40.
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116 La Salle expedition: Parkman 1983 (vol. 1)
:920-30.
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116 Contrast between De Soto and La Salle’s experiences: Author’s interviews, Galloway, Hudson, Ramenofsky; Ramenofsky 1987
:55-63; Burnett and Murray 1993
:228.
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117 Pigs as source for epidemic: Ramenofsky and Galloway 1997
:271-73; Crosby 1986
:172-76, 212-13 (suggesting epidemic disease may also have come before De Soto), 273; Crosby 2003b
:77 (importance of pigs to Spanish).
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118 Caddo and Coosa: Perttula 1993, 1991.512-14; M. T. Smith 1994
:264-65; M. T. Smith 1987.
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118 Mass graves in the Southeast: M. T. Smith 1987
:60-68.
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118 1918 flu epidemic: Crosby 2003a.
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119 瘟疫的起源及其造成的损失:流行病学家愈发质疑黑死病是否是淋巴腺鼠疫。鼠类与跳蚤携带淋巴腺鼠疫病毒,但黑死病的传播速度要快于这些动物通常的行动速度(而且还是在较其久居地更冷的地区内)。而鼠疫杆菌的传染性从未被证明有黑死病那么强。导致那次疫情的有可能是诸如埃博拉病毒那样的出血热(Scott and Duncan 2001)。我感谢大卫·海尼格使我注意到了这种讨论。至于损失,见Wrigley 1969
:63等。
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119 人口最低值:Ubelaker 1992
:169-76,table 3。据1890年美国人口调查数据显示,美国原住民人口为23.7万(United States Bureau of the Census 1937
:3,table 2)。但人们普遍相信美国人口调查局的统计并不完全:它未能准确地调查很多原住民地区的情况,而其采用的对“印第安人”的定义的限制性又太强了。绝大多数人口统计学者都把这个数字翻一番。
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120 Zambardino critique: Zambardino 1980 (“the errors multiply,”8; “meaningful,”18).
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120 “no better than”: Crosby 1992
:175.
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121 Skepticism: Interviews, Ubelaker, Snow; Snow 1995 (“no support,”1604); 1992; Snow and Lanphear 1988. I believe David Henige coined“Low Counter”and“High Counter.”
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121 Historians’ reluctance: Calloway 2003
:415-16 (“boggle,”415); McNeill 1998: 19-23 .
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121 1967年的麻疹疫情:访谈,Napoleon Chagnon,Thomas Headland,Francis Black,Patrick Tierney;Neel et al. 1970;Neel 1977
:155-68。当美国记者帕特里克·泰尔尼发文指责尼尔及其共同执笔人、人类学家沙尼翁加重疫情,甚至有可能是在一次不道德的,关于疫苗效果的实验进程中引发了这次疫情之后,麻疹疫情成为了争论的主题(Tierney 2000)。轰动过后,研究人员大体上同意,尼尔和沙尼翁传播麻疹的可能性是可以忽略不计的(Mann 2000a,2001;Neel et al. 2001);正如正文所表明的那样,这次疫情的病源显然是图托托比河边的传教士(Headland 2000)。根据方言的不同,雅诺马马(Yanomamo)人也被称为雅诺马米(Yanomami)人、雅诺阿马(Yanoama)人或雅诺马莫(Yanomamö)人。
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123 Distribution of blood types: Crosby 2003b
:22-30. For a more complete explanation, see Crawford 1998
:95-101.
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