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[85]Ibid.,pp.52,55;E.J.Rhoads,Manchus and Han (Seattle,2000)争议说,直到1900年以后还一直有种族和文化差异。
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[86]Y.P.Hao,The Comprador in Nineteenth-Century China (Cambridge,Mass.,1970)是标准著作。
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[87]怡和洋行是最著名的一家老牌英资洋行,远东最大的英资财团,清朝时即从事与中国的贸易。渣甸洋行对香港早年的发展有举足轻重的作用,是首家在上海开设的欧洲公司,也是首家在日本成立的外国公司。今天的怡和是一家业务多元化的国际公司,公司的母公司怡和控股有限公司在百慕大注册,股份在新加坡及伦敦两地上市。
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[88]太古洋行是一家老牌英资洋行,清朝时即从事与中国的贸易。今天的太古是一个植根于亚洲的跨国公司。其在大中华区的业务多用太古名称。
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[89]Hao,Commercial Revolution,p.340;关于商人的困境,见F.E.Hyde,Far Eastern Trade 1860–1914 (London,1973),第5章。
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[90]Hao,Commercial Revolution,pp.338–339.
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[91]一份出色的研究,见Albert M.Craig,Choshu in the Meiji Restoration (Cambridge,Mass.,1961),pp.17ff。
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[92]参见C.Totman,Early Modern Japan (London,1993),pp.242–245。
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[93]Craig,Choshu,pp.26,53–70;C.L.Yates,Saigo Takamori (London,1995),p.19.
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[94]关于这些事件,见Craig,Choshu,第8—9章。
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[95]关于列强的中立宣言,见E.Satow,A Diplomat in Japan (London,1921),p.303;Morse and MacNair,Far Eastern International Relations,p.325。
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[96]关于该进程的最好介绍,仍然是E.H.Norman,Japan’s Emergence as a Modern State (New York,1940),一份在今天的专业文献中奇怪地被忽略的出色研究,它大体上预言了其论点和思想。
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[97]The Autobiography of Fukuzawa Aristomo in the Rise of Modern Japan (Cambridge,Mass.,1971).
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[98]参见Rodger F.Hackett,Yamagata Aristomo in the Rise of Modern Japan (Cambridge,Mass.,1971)。
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[99]关于这个进程,见T.Fujitani,Splendid Monarchy:Power and Pegeantry in Modern Japan (Lodnon,1998)。
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[100]G.C.Allen and A.Donnithorne,Western Enterprise in Far Eastern Economic Development:China and Japan (London,1954),p.202.
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[101]C.Howe,The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy (London,1996),p.250.
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[102]E.S.Crawcour,‘Economic Change in the Nineteenth Century’,in M.B.Jansen (ed.),The Cambridge History of Japan,vol.5:The Nineteenth Century (Cambridge,1989),p.616.
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[103]这或许部分是由财政需要诱导的,参见T.Suzuki-Morris,A History of Japanese Economic Thought (London,1989),p.57。
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[104]参见Herbert P.Bix,Peasant Protest in Japan 1590–1884 (New Havebm 1986),pp.210–212;G.Roznan,‘Social Change’,in Jansen (ed.),Cambridge History of Japan,vol.5,p.525。
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[105]参见第4章。
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[106]D.Quataert,‘The Age of Reforms,1812–1914’,in H.Inalcik with D.Quataert (eds.),An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1914 (Cambridge,1994),p.881.
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[107]Xavier de Plamhol,L’Islamet la mer:La mosque et le matelot (Paris,2000),pp.270–271。事实上,土耳其海军在欧洲位居第三,但是表现极差。
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[108]M.Todorova,‘Midhat Pasha’s Governmentship of the Danubian Provinces’,in C.E.Farah (ed.),Decision-Making and Change in the Ottoman Empire (Kirksville,Mo.,1993),pp.115–123.
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[109]参见J.McCarthy,Death and Exile:The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims 1821–1922 (Princeton,1995),pp.37ff。
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